Empirical assumptions behind the violation of expectation experiments in human and non-human animals.

One of the most widely used procedures applied to non-human animals or pre-linguistic humans is the "violation of expectation paradigm". Curiously there is almost no discussion in the philosophical literature about it. Our objective will be to provide a first approach to the meta-theoretical nature of the assumptions behind the procedure that appeals to the violation of expectation and to extract some consequences. We show that behind them exists an empirical principle that affirms that the violation of the expectation of certain mental rules generates surprise. We then proceeded to discuss the nature of these "mental rules". We show that, as is often the case with theoretical concepts proposed by theories, they do not have a fixed interpretation. This will allow us to show that the usual relationship found in the developmental psychology literature between this experimental paradigm and cognitive approaches (which interpret experimental results in terms of higher-level mental activities) is not necessary. Finally, we relate this experimental design with the mark test and the inequity aversion test and discuss the possible ampliation of the application of the empirical principle of violation of expectation.

Correlates of genetic monogamy in socially monogamous mammals: insights from Azara's owl monkeys.

Understanding the evolution of mating systems, a central topic in evolutionary biology for more than 50 years, requires examining the genetic consequences of mating and the relationships between social systems and mating systems. Among pair-living mammals, where genetic monogamy is extremely rare, the extent of extra-group paternity rates has been associated with male participation in infant care, strength of the pair bond and length of the breeding season. This study evaluated the relationship between two of those factors and the genetic mating system of socially monogamous mammals, testing predictions that male care and strength of pair bond would be negatively correlated with rates of extra-pair paternity (EPP). Autosomal microsatellite analyses provide evidence for genetic monogamy in a pair-living primate with bi-parental care, the Azara's owl monkey (Aotus azarae). A phylogenetically corrected generalized least square analysis was used to relate male care and strength of the pair bond to their genetic mating system (i.e. proportions of EPP) in 15 socially monogamous mammalian species. The intensity of male care was correlated with EPP rates in mammals, while strength of pair bond failed to reach statistical significance. Our analyses show that, once social monogamy has evolved, paternal care, and potentially also close bonds, may facilitate the evolution of genetic monogamy.

Papel do olfato no estabelecimento do vínculo materno-filial em mamíferos / Function of the olfact in the establishment of the maternal-filial bond in mammals

O olfato é reconhecido como uma importante ferramenta reguladora do comportamento sexual, tanto de invertebrados, como vertebrados. No entanto, o seu papel na modulação do comportamento materno-filial não parece ser tão óbvio. Inúmeros autores apresentam evidências da atuação de mecanismos neuro-endócrinos no comportamento materno em mamíferos, através do trato olfatório acessório e principal e referem à surpreendente participação da ocitocina como principal hormônio facilitador do processo. Os estímulos olfatórios oriundos dos recém-nascidos também são igualmente importantes no início e na manutenção do vínculo materno-filial. Mais recentemente, foi comprovada em algumas espécies, a existência de um aprendizado olfatório pré-natal, reforçando a hipótese que comunicações olfatórias entre a mãe e o feto possam ocorrer mesmo antes do parto. A presente revisão visa sintetizar e discutir informações oriundas de experimentações realizadas em diversas espécies de mamíferos domésticos, proporcionando uma maior compreensão dos mecanismos que promovem a expressão do comportamento materno-filial.

The sense of smell is recognized as an important regulating tool of sexual behavior, both of invertebrates and vertebrates. However, its function in the modulation of maternal-filial behavior is not clear. Many authors have presented evidence that neuroendocrine mechanisms influence the maternal behavior of mammals, through the accessory and principal olfactory tract and mention the surprising role of oxicitocin as the main hormonal component of the process. Olfactory stimuli from the offspring are equally important for the start and maintenance of the maternal-filial bond. More recently, evidence of pre-natal olfactory learning has been shown in some species, thereby supporting the hypothesis that olfactory communication between the mother and fetus can occur before birth. The present review summarizes and discusses information from studies carried out with several species of domestic mammals, providing a better understanding in the mechanisms that promote the expression of maternal-filial behavior.

Papel do olfato no estabelecimento do vínculo materno-filial em mamíferos / Function of the olfact in the establishment of the maternal-filial bond in mammals

O olfato é reconhecido como uma importante ferramenta reguladora do comportamento sexual, tanto de invertebrados, como vertebrados. No entanto, o seu papel na modulação do comportamento materno-filial não parece ser tão óbvio. Inúmeros autores apresentam evidências da atuação de mecanismos neuro-endócrinos no comportamento materno em mamíferos, através do trato olfatório acessório e principal e referem à surpreendente participação da ocitocina como principal hormônio facilitador do processo. Os estímulos olfatórios oriundos dos recém-nascidos também são igualmente importantes no início e na manutenção do vínculo materno-filial. Mais recentemente, foi comprovada em algumas espécies, a existência de um aprendizado olfatório pré-natal, reforçando a hipótese que comunicações olfatórias entre a mãe e o feto possam ocorrer mesmo antes do parto. A presente revisão visa sintetizar e discutir informações oriundas de experimentações realizadas em diversas espécies de mamíferos domésticos, proporcionando uma maior compreensão dos mecanismos que promovem a expressão do comportamento materno-filial.(AU)

The sense of smell is recognized as an important regulating tool of sexual behavior, both of invertebrates and vertebrates. However, its function in the modulation of maternal-filial behavior is not clear. Many authors have presented evidence that neuroendocrine mechanisms influence the maternal behavior of mammals, through the accessory and principal olfactory tract and mention the surprising role of oxicitocin as the main hormonal component of the process. Olfactory stimuli from the offspring are equally important for the start and maintenance of the maternal-filial bond. More recently, evidence of pre-natal olfactory learning has been shown in some species, thereby supporting the hypothesis that olfactory communication between the mother and fetus can occur before birth. The present review summarizes and discusses information from studies carried out with several species of domestic mammals, providing a better understanding in the mechanisms that promote the expression of maternal-filial behavior.(AU)