Cost-effectiveness analysis of ticagrelor compared to clopidogrel for the treatment of patients with acute coronary syndrome in Colombia / Análisis de costo-efectividad del ticagrelor en comparación con el clopidogrel para el tratamiento de pacientes con síndrome coronario agudo en Colombia

Introduction: Acute coronary syndrome is one of the most frequent medical emergencies in developing countries. Objective: To determine, from the perspective of the Colombian health system, the cost-effectiveness of ticagrelor compared to clopidogrel for the treatment of patients with acute coronary syndrome. Materials and methods: We conducted a cost-effectiveness analysis from the perspective of the Colombian health system comparing ticagrelor and clopidogrel for the treatment of patients with acute coronary syndrome. To estimate the expected costs and outcomes, a Markov model was constructed in which patients could remain stable without experiencing new cardiovascular events, suffer from a new event, or die. For the baseline case, a 10-year time horizon and a discount ratio of 3% for costs and benefits were adopted. The transition probabilities were extracted from the PLATO (Platelet Inhibition and Patient Outcomes) clinical trial. Vital statistics were drawn from the Departmento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (DANE) and additional information from Colombian patients included in the Access registry. To identify and measure resource use, a standard case was built by consulting guidelines and protocols. Unit costs were obtained from Colombian rate lists. A probabilistic sensitivity analysis was conducted in which costs were represented by a triangular distribution, and the effectiveness through a beta distribution. Results: In the base case, the additional cost per quality-adjusted life-year gained with ticagrelor was COP$ 28,411,503. The results were sensitive to changes in the time horizon and the unit cost of clopidogrel. For a willingness-to-pay equivalent to three times the Colombian per capita gross domestic product, the probability of ticagrelor being cost-effective was 75%. Conclusions: Ticagrelor is a cost-effective strategy for the treatment of patients with acute coronary syndrome in Colombia.

Introducción. El síndrome coronario agudo es una de las emergencias médicas más frecuentes en los países en desarrollo. Objetivo. Determinar, desde la perspectiva del sistema de salud colombiano, la relación de costo-efectividad del ticagrelor comparado con el clopidogrel para el tratamiento de pacientes con síndrome coronario agudo. Materiales y métodos. Se hizo un análisis de costo-efectividad desde la perspectiva del sistema de salud colombiano, comparando el ticagrelor y el clopidogrel para el tratamiento de pacientes con síndrome coronario agudo. Para estimar los costos y resultados esperados de las dos alternativas, se construyó un modelo de Markov en el cual los pacientes podían permanecer estables sin experimentar nuevos eventos cardiovasculares, sufrir de un nuevo evento coronario o morir. Para el caso de base, se adoptó un horizonte temporal de 10 años y una tasa de descuento de 3 % para los costos y beneficios. Las probabilidades de transición se extrajeron del estudio Platelet Inhibition and Patient Outcomes , PLATO. Las estadísticas vitales se consultaron en informes del Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (DANE) y los parámetros adicionales del modelo se basaron en la información de los pacientes colombianos incluidos en el registro en Access. Para identificar y medir el uso de recursos, se construyó un caso estándar a partir de guías y protocolos. Los costos unitarios se obtuvieron de manuales tarifarios colombianos. Se hizo un análisis de sensibilidad probabilístico en el que los costos se representaron por una distribución triangular y, las probabilidades de transición, mediante una distribución beta. Resultados. En el caso de base, el costo adicional por años de vida ajustados por calidad ganados con el ticagrelor fue de COP$ 28´411.503. Los resultados fueron sensibles a los cambios en el horizonte temporal y al costo unitario del clopidogrel. Para un umbral de costo-efectividad equivalente a tres veces el producto interno bruto per cápita de Colombia, la probabilidad de que el ticagrelor fuera costo-efectivo fue de 75 %. Conclusiones. El ticagrelor es una estrategia costo-efectiva para el tratamiento de los pacientes con síndrome coronario agudo en Colombia.

Cost-effectiveness analysis of ticagrelor compared to clopidogrel for the treatment of patients with acute coronary syndrome in Colombia.

INTRODUCTION: Acute coronary syndrome is one of the most frequent medical emergencies in developing countries. OBJECTIVE: To determine, from the perspective of the Colombian health system, the cost-effectiveness of ticagrelor compared to clopidogrel for the treatment of patients with acute coronary syndrome. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a cost-effectiveness analysis from the perspective of the Colombian health system comparing ticagrelor and clopidogrel for the treatment of patients with acute coronary syndrome. To estimate the expected costs and outcomes, a Markov model was constructed in which patients could remain stable without experiencing new cardiovascular events, suffer from a new event, or die. For the baseline case, a 10-year time horizon and a discount ratio of 3% for costs and benefits were adopted. The transition probabilities were extracted from the PLATO (Platelet Inhibition and Patient Outcomes) clinical trial. Vital statistics were drawn from the Departmento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística (DANE) and additional information from Colombian patients included in the Access registry. To identify and measure resource use, a standard case was built by consulting guidelines and protocols. Unit costs were obtained from Colombian rate lists. A probabilistic sensitivity analysis was conducted in which costs were represented by a triangular distribution, and the effectiveness through a beta distribution. RESULTS: In the base case, the additional cost per quality-adjusted life-year gained with ticagrelor was COP$ 28,411,503. The results were sensitive to changes in the time horizon and the unit cost of clopidogrel. For a willingness-to-pay equivalent to three times the Colombian per capita gross domestic product, the probability of ticagrelor being cost-effective was 75%. CONCLUSIONS: Ticagrelor is a cost-effective strategy for the treatment of patients with acute coronary syndrome in Colombia.

[Cost of drugs used to treat cardiovascular disease in Brazil]. / Preço dos medicamentos utilizados nas doenças cardiovasculares no Brasil.

OBJECTIVE: Diseases of the circulatory system are a principal cause of mortality in Brazil. Using as a basis drugs dispensed through Brazil's Popular Pharmacy Program (FPB, for its name in Portuguese), prices for drugs used to treat circulatory diseases were analyzed to identify the advantages of using generic drugs and the FPB. METHODS: Drug prices were obtained using Brazil's Pharmacy Price Guide and FPB price tables. The costs of 15 drugs available through the FPB were compared with those of three generic pharmaceutical products, three similar products, and the reference drug. RESULTS: The generic drugs were lower in price for 10 of the drugs and for four of the similar products. The FPB drugs were of the lowest price. CONCLUSIONS: Generic and FPB drugs are easily accessed by the population and thus facilitate the continuity of pharmacotherapy when these drugs are not available through the Unified Health System and/or are not affordable through other means. Access to drugs should be taken into consideration at the time prescriptions are filled, especially as regards those used to treat chronic diseases.

Preço dos medicamentos utilizados nas doenças cardiovasculares no Brasil / Cost of drugs used to treat cardiovascular disease in Brazil

OBJETIVO: A mortalidade brasileira tem como causa principal as doenças do aparelho circulatório. Considerando os medicamentos dispensados na Farmácia Popular do Brasil (FPB), analisaram-se os preços daqueles utilizados no tratamento dessas doenças para verificar a contribuição dos produtos genéricos e da FPB. MÉTODOS: O preço de cada medicamento foi obtido no Guia de Preços da Farmácia e na tabela de preços da FPB. O custo de 15 medicamentos disponíveis na FPB foi comparado ao de três especialidades farmacêuticas genéricas, três similares e a de referência. RESULTADOS: Os genéricos foram os que apresentaram menor preço para dez medicamentos e os similares para quatro. Na FPB encontraram-se os produtos de menor custo. CONCLUSÕES: Os medicamentos genéricos e os medicamentos da FPB são de fácil acesso à população, contribuindo com a continuidade da farmacoterapia na falta de disponibilidade pelo Sistema Único de Saúde e/ou de renda suficiente para aquisição do medicamento de forma regular. O acesso aos medicamentos deve ser considerado no momento da prescrição, principalmente para aqueles empregados no tratamento de doenças crônicas.

OBJECTIVE: Diseases of the circulatory system are a principal cause of mortality in Brazil. Using as a basis drugs dispensed through Brazil's Popular Pharmacy Program (FPB, for its name in Portuguese), prices for drugs used to treat circulatory diseases were analyzed to identify the advantages of using generic drugs and the FPB. METHODS: Drug prices were obtained using Brazil's Pharmacy Price Guide and FPB price tables. The costs of 15 drugs available through the FPB were compared with those of three generic pharmaceutical products, three similar products, and the reference drug. RESULTS: The generic drugs were lower in price for 10 of the drugs and for four of the similar products. The FPB drugs were of the lowest price. CONCLUSIONS: Generic and FPB drugs are easily accessed by the population and thus facilitate the continuity of pharmacotherapy when these drugs are not available through the Unified Health System and/or are not affordable through other means. Access to drugs should be taken into consideration at the time prescriptions are filled, especially as regards those used to treat chronic diseases.

Access to medicines by ambulatory health service users in Mexico: an analysis of the national health surveys 1994 to 2006.

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the medicines prescription, prescription filling, payment expenditure for medicines by ambulatory health service users (HSU) in 2006, and to evaluate its evolution in the last 12 years. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Using data from the National Health Surveys in 2006 three binary logistic regression models were constructed to identify the variables associated with the prescription rate, prescription filling and payment for medicines in 2006. The results of access to medicines were compared to the ones from previous National Health Services from 1994 and 2000. RESULTS: The type of health service provider was found to be the most important predictors of access to medicines. Although the proportion of HSU obtaining a prescription and paying for drugs has broadly stayed the same as in 1994, the percentage of HSU paying for their prescribed medicines decreased from 70% in 1994 to 42% at Ministry of Health institutions in 2006. CONCLUSION: The progress in prescription and population access to medicines has been uneven across health service providers.

Access to medicines by ambulatory health service users in Mexico: an analysis of the national health surveys 1994 to 2006 / Acceso a medicamentos para los usuarios del primer nivel de los servicios de salud: análisis de las encuestas nacionales de salud 1994, 2000 y 2006

OBJECTIVE: To analyse the medicines prescription, prescription filling, payment expenditure for medicines by ambulatory health service users (HSU) in 2006, and to evaluate its evolution in the last 12 years. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Using data from the National Health Surveys in 2006 three binary logistic regression models were constructed to identify the variables associated with the prescription rate, prescription filling and payment for medicines in 2006. The results of access to medicines were compared to the ones from previous National Health Services from 1994 and 2000. RESULTS: The type of health service provider was found to be the most important predictors of access to medicines. Although the proportion of HSU obtaining a prescription and paying for drugs has broadly stayed the same as in 1994, the percentage of HSU paying for their prescribed medicines decreased from 70 percent in 1994 to 42 percent at Ministry of Health institutions in 2006. CONCLUSION: The progress in prescription and population access to medicines has been uneven across health service providers.

OBJETIVO: Analizar la prescripción médica, surtimiento de recetas y gasto en medicamentos que tienen los usuarios del primer nivel de los servicios de salud (UPNS) en 2006 y evaluar su evolución en los últimos 12 años. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Utilizando los datos de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud de 2006 se construyeron tres modelos de regresión logística para identificar los factores asociados con la prescripción, el surtimiento de medicamentos y el pago por medicamentos recetados. Se compararon los resultados del acceso a medicamentos con los de encuestas anteriores de 1994 y 2000. RESULTADOS: La variable más relevante para el acceso a medicamentos fue el tipo de institución donde se prestó atención. Aunque al nivel global la proporción de los UPNS que obtuvieron una prescripción y que pagaron por los medicamentos más o menos se mantuvo estable, el porcentaje de los UPNS que pagaron por los medicamentos en las instituciones de la Secretaría de Salud disminuyó de 70 a 42 por ciento entre 1994 y 2006. CONCLUSIÓN: El mejoramiento del acceso a medicamentos para usuarios de los servicios de salud ha sido desigual a través de las instituciones.

Determination of the frequency and direct cost of the adverse drug events in Argentina.

To determine the frequency and the direct costs of adverse drug reactions, in an ambulatory population of the City of Buenos Aires, Argentina and its area of influence. A retrospective study was done during a period of three months on approximately 300.000 residents of the Buenos Aires area, gathering data according to the selected variables by means of the electronic capture of prescriptions dispensed in pharmacies of the area. This method enables the detection and registration of potential conflicts that may arise between a prescribed drug and factors such as: patient's demographic, clinical and drug profile. The analysis unit was defined as the happening of a moderate or severe adverse event reported by the system. The selected variables were the incidence of these effects and the direct cost was calculated as the value of the drugs that induced the adverse event. The events were classified according to the following interactions: a) drug-drug, b) drug-pediatrics, c) drug-gender, d) drug-pregnancy and abuse of controlled substances. The observed frequency shows great variability and the shortage of available data for ambulatory populations. We found 6.74% of reported events over the total of processed items, which generated an additional cost equivalent to 4.58% of the total pharmaceutical expenses. This study has only evaluated the cost occurred by the use of a drug that will lead to an adverse reaction. Moderate and severe reactions were included regardless of the important indirect costs, hospitalization costs, tests, physician fees, etc.

Costing of scaling up HIV/AIDS treatment in Mexico.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the net effect of introducing highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART) in Mexico on total annual per-patient costs for HIV/AIDS care, taking into account potential savings from treatment of opportunistic infections and hospitalizations. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A multi-center, retrospective patient chart review and collection of unit cost data were performed to describe the utilization of services and estimate costs of care for 1003 adult HIV+ patients in the public sector. RESULTS: HAART is not cost-saving and the average annual cost per patient increases after initiation of HAART due to antiretrovirals, accounting for 90% of total costs. Hospitalizations do decrease post-HAART, but not enough to offset the increased cost. CONCLUSIONS: Scaling up access to HAART is feasible in middle income settings. Since antiretrovirals are so costly, optimizing efficiency in procurement and prescribing is paramount. The observed adherence was low, suggesting that a proportion of these high drug costs translated into limited health benefits.

Costing of scaling up HIV/AIDS treatment in Mexico / Costos del tratamiento de VIH/SIDA en México

OBJECTIVE: To determine the net effect of introducing highly active antiretroviral treatment (HAART) in Mexico on total annual per-patient costs for HIV/AIDS care, taking into account potential savings from treatment of opportunistic infections and hospitalizations. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A multi-center, retrospective patient chart review and collection of unit cost data were performed to describe the utilization of services and estimate costs of care for 1003 adult HIV+ patients in the public sector. RESULTS: HAART is not cost-saving and the average annual cost per patient increases after initiation of HAART due to antiretrovirals, accounting for 90 percent of total costs. Hospitalizations do decrease post-HAART, but not enough to offset the increased cost. CONCLUSIONS: Scaling up access to HAART is feasible in middle income settings. Since antiretrovirals are so costly, optimizing efficiency in procurement and prescribing is paramount. The observed adherence was low, suggesting that a proportion of these high drug costs translated into limited health benefits.

OBJETIVO: Determinar el efecto neto de la introducción de la terapia antirretroviral altamente activa (TARAA) en México sobre los costos anuales totales por paciente en el tratamiento de VIH/SIDA, tomando en cuenta el posible ahorro en el tratamiento de infecciones oportunistas y hospitalización. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se hizo un estudio retrospectivo, multicéntrico, mediante la revisión de los expedientes de los pacientes y la recolección de datos de costos unitarios para describir la utilización de los servicios y calcular los costos de la atención de 1 003 pacientes adultos VIH positivos en el sector público. RESULTADOS: La TARAA no ahorra costos y el costo promedio anual por paciente aumenta después de su inicio debido a los antirretrovirales, que representan 90 por ciento del costo total. Las hospitalizaciones disminuyen después de iniciada la TARAA, pero no lo suficiente como para compensar el aumento en costos. CONCLUSIONES: Incrementar el acceso a la TARAA es factible en países con ingresos medios. Debido al alto costo de los antirretrovirales resulta esencial que se optimice la eficiencia en la compra y prescripción. El apego al tratamiento observado fue bajo, lo que sugiere que una proporción de estos altos costos en medicamentos no se traducen en beneficios a la salud significativos.

Potent analgesics are more expensive for patients in developing countries: a comparative study.

Opioids are some of the most important analgesic medications for the management of both moderate to severe pain and several are included on the World Health organization (WHO) list of essential drugs. Opioid costs in developing countries have been reported to be higher than those in developed nations. This study documents retail prices and availability of several potent opioids in a number of developing and developed countries. Pain and Palliative Care specialists currently working in their countries were asked to collect data on the retail cost of a 30 day supply of 15 different opioid preparations in 5 developing and 7 developed countries. Data were analyzed to compare costs and costs as a percentage of gross national product (GNP) per capita per month. Opioid costs and availability varied widely in both developing and developed countries. Forty five of 75 opioid preparations were available in developing countries (40% of medications studied were not available) and 76 of 105 preparations were available in the developed countries (28% not available). In US dollars, the median cost of opioids differed between developed and developing countries ($53 and $112 respectively) The median costs of all opioid preparations as a percentage of GNP per capita per month were 36% for developing and 3% for developed nations; the difference was statistically significant (p < 0.001). In developing countries 23 of 45 (51%) of opioid dosage forms cost more than 30% of the monthly GNP per capita, versus only three of 76 (4%) in developed countries. The relative cost of opioids to income is higher in developing countries. Our data suggest that in developing countries opioid access for the majority of patients is likely to be limited by cost, and development of palliative care programs will require heavy or total subsidization of opioid costs.

Consumers devise drug cost-cutting measures: medical and legal issues to consider.

Health care costs in general, and prescription drug costs in particular, are rapidly rising. Between 1996 and 2007 the average annual per capita health care cost is projected to increase from dollar 3,781 to dollar 7,100. [AQ1] The single leading component of health care cost is the cost of prescription drugs (currently 10% of total health care spending, projected to become 18% in 2008). The average cost per drug increased 40% during the 1993-1998 period. Forty-one million Americans have no health insurance, and those who have, have inadequate prescription drug coverage. [AQ2] To cope with this situation, many consumers are trying to economize by doing without the prescriptions or the appropriate doses, buying generics or medicines from Canada or Mexico, or splitting pills of higher doses to take advantage of the pricing policy of drug manufacturers. Some of these approaches are medically and/or legally acceptable, while some are dubious. Most adversely affected are the seniors and poor; for certain groups of seniors prescription drugs account for 30% of their health care spending. The problem must receive prompt concerted attention from consumers, insurers, pharmaceutical companies, and lawmakers before it gets out of hand.

Transferring the financial risks of pharmaceutical benefits from a large health care provider in Argentina to a consortium of pharmaceutical companies.

OBJECTIVE: The National Institute of Social Services for Retirees and Pensioners (NISSRP) is a nationwide health care financing agency and service provider in Argentina. Among its services, the NISSRP provides outpatient drug coverage to more than 3.3 million beneficiaries, mainly senior citizens and disabled persons. In 1997, to help cope with its rising costs, the NISSRP agreed to transfer the risk for the cost of outpatient medications and cancer-treatment drugs to a consortium of pharmaceutical companies in exchange for a fixed monthly payment. The objective of this study was to determine the impact that this new approach had on three things: (1) the level of expenditures for the medicines that were included in the agreement, (2) the pattern of nonrational prescribing for NISSRP beneficiaries, and (3) this pattern's relationship with macroeconomic variables and the pattern of prescribing for Argentina as a whole. METHODS: We compared outpatient-medicine consumption in 1999 with consumption before the agreement went into effect. RESULTS: The actual amount that NISSRP beneficiaries spent out-of-pocket climbed from US$ 336.13 million in 1996 to US$ 473.36 million in 1999, an increase of almost 41%. The nominal amount "spent" by the NISSRP in 1999 was US$ 601.11 million, versus a real amount of US$ 374.75 million in 1996, an "increase" of 60% (that increase for the NISSRP was only theoretical since the agreement specified the fixed monthly amount that the NISSRP would have to pay to the pharmaceutical consortium). In contrast with the increased real spending by NISSRP beneficiaries, Argentina's economy remained stable over the assessed period, with the consumer price index even falling by 0.8%. We found high levels of nonrational drug use in the NISSRP system in both 1996 and 1999, indicating a serious ongoing problem. CONCLUSIONS: An agreement with pharmaceutical companies, like the one we have described, might add an element of financial predictability for institutions such as the NISSRP. However, such an agreement can easily result in an increased economic burden for health care beneficiaries, and without any improvement in the services that they receive. This type of agreement requires extensive mechanisms for control, follow-up, and updating, and it also risks making nonrational drug prescribing the accepted rule. While perhaps feasible, the requirements for this kind of agreement are actually very difficult to put into place, requiring additional efforts from institutions such as the NISSRP.

Transferring the financial risks of pharmaceutical benefits from a large health care provider in Argentina to a consortium of pharmaceutical companies / Transferencia de los riesgos económicos de conceder prestaciones por productos farmacéuticos de una gran empresa proveedora de asistencia sanitaria a un consorcio de compañías farmacéuticas

OBJECTIVE: The National Institute of Social Services for Retirees and Pensioners (NISSRP) is a nationwide health care financing agency and service provider in Argentina. Among its services, the NISSRP provides outpatient drug coverage to more than 3.3 million beneficiaries, mainly senior citizens and disabled persons. In 1997, to help cope with its rising costs, the NISSRP agreed to transfer the risk for the cost of outpatient medications and cancer-treatment drugs to a consortium of pharmaceutical companies in exchange for a fixed monthly payment. The objective of this study was to determine the impact that this new approach had on three things: (1) the level of expenditures for the medicines that were included in the agreement, (2) the pattern of nonrational prescribing for NISSRP beneficiaries, and (3) this pattern's relationship with macroeconomic variables and the pattern of prescribing for Argentina as a whole. METHODS: We compared outpatient-medicine consumption in 1999 with consumption before the agreement went into effect. RESULTS: The actual amount that NISSRP beneficiaries spent out-of-pocket climbed from US$ 336.13 million in 1996 to US$ 473.36 million in 1999, an increase of almost 41 percent. The nominal amount "spent" by the NISSRP in 1999 was US$ 601.11 million, versus a real amount of US$ 374.75 million in 1996, an "increase" of 60 percent (that increase for the NISSRP was only theoretical since the agreement specified the fixed monthly amount that the NISSRP would have to pay to the pharmaceutical consortium). In contrast with the increased real spending by NISSRP beneficiaries, Argentina's economy remained stable over the assessed period, with the consumer price index even falling by 0.8 percent. We found high levels of nonrational drug use in the NISSRP system in both 1996 and 1999, indicating a serious ongoing problem. CONCLUSIONS: An agreement with pharmaceutical companies, like the one we have described, might add an element of financial predictability for institutions such as the NISSRP. However, such an agreement can easily result in an increased economic burden for health care beneficiaries, and without any improvement in the services that they receive. This type of agreement requires extensive mechanisms for control, follow-up, and updating, and it also risks making nonrational drug prescribing the accepted rule. While perhaps feasible, the requirements for this kind of agreement are actually very difficult to put into...

Objetivos. El Instituto Nacional de Servicios Sociales para Personas Jubiladas y Pensionadas (INSSPJP) es una agencia nacional que financia y provee servicios de salud en Argentina. Entre los servicios que provee figura la cobertura del costo de medicamentos adquiridos por la vía ambulatoria a más de 3,3 millones de beneficiarios, principalmente personas de edad avanzada o discapacitadas. En 1997, con el fin de ayudar a sufragar el aumento de los costos, el INSSPJP acordó transferir el riesgo de los costos de los medicamentos para pacientes ambulatorios y para el tratamiento del cáncer a un consorcio de compañías farmacéuticas a cambio de una cuota mensual fija. El objetivo del presente estudio es determinar qué impacto ha tenido esta medida en tres aspectos: 1) el nivel del gasto en los medicamentos abarcados por el acuerdo; 2) la tendencia a prescribir medicamentos de forma no racional para beneficiarios del INSSPJP y 3) la relación que muestra esta tendencia con las variables macroeconómicas y los patrones de prescripción en toda la Argentina. Métodos. Comparamos el consumo de medicamentos por pacientes ambulatorios en 1999 con el consumo antes de la entrada en vigor del acuerdo. Resultados. La cantidad que los beneficiarios del INSSPJP gastaron de su bolsillo aumentó de $US 336,13 millones en 1996 a $US 473,36 millones en 1999, aumento que equivale a casi 41%. La cantidad nominal "gastada" por el INSSPJP en 1999 fue de $US 601,11 millones, frente a la cantidad real gastada en 1996, que fue de $US 374,75 millones. Esto representa un "aumento" de 60% (el aumento para el INSSPJP es solo teórico, ya que en el acuerdo se especificaba la cantidad mensual fija que esta entidad tendría que pagarle al consorcio de compañías farmacéuticas). A diferencia del aumento del gasto real que afectó a los beneficiarios del INSSPJP, la economía argentina permaneció estable durante el período estudiado, cuando el índice de precios al consumidor hasta se redujo en 0,8%. Hallamos un uso frecuente de medicamentos de forma irracional en el sistema del INSSPJP tanto en 1996 como en 1999, dato que apunta a la presencia de un problema importante. Conclusiones. Un acuerdo con compañías farmacéuticas como el aquí descrito podría aportar un elemento de pronosticabilidad para instituciones tales como el INSSPJP. No obstante, un acuerdo de este tipo bien podría aumentar la carga económica de los beneficiarios de las prestaciones de salud, sin que mejoren en modo alguno los servicios que reciben. Los acuerdos de este tipo exigen que haya complejos mecanismos de control, seguimiento y actualización, y al mismo tiempo acarrean el peligro de que la prescripción irracional de medicamentos se convierta en práctica habitual. Aunque su factibilidad no es de dudar, los mecanismos que exigen estos acuerdos son muy difíciles de implantar y su puesta en marcha plantea la necesidad de medidas adicionales por parte de instituciones como el INSSPJP

[Prescriptions, access, and expenses on drugs among users of health services in Mexico]. / Prescripción, acceso y gasto en medicamentos entre usuarios de servicios de salud en México.

OBJECTIVE: To analyze the medical prescription, drug access and drug expenditure by patients based on the National Health Survey in Mexico, 1994. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A descriptive analysis of drug access and expenditure was undertaken and predictive factors for medical prescription were identified by logistic regression for 3,324 patients. RESULTS: 78% of the patients received drug prescriptions. 92% of the Social Security patients and 35% of the Ministry of Health patients received drugs free of charge (p = 0.000). The region with the highest poverty index received the least amount of drugs free of charge. Regarding drug expenditure of patients who purchased drugs, median expenditure was 40.00 pesos (12.50 USD). Private health service patients spent significantly more than public health service patients. CONCLUSIONS: Drug access and drug expenditure are linked to socioeconomic factors and to the institutions attended by patients. The Mexican health system faces, among others, the challenge of increasing the equity of access to medical drugs.