Small Intestinal Endocrine Cell Derived Exosomal ACE2 Protects Islet ß-Cell Function by Inhibiting the Activation of NLRP3 Inflammasome and Reducing ß-Cell Pyroptosis.

Background: The "gut-islets axis" is an important endocrine signaling axis that regulates islets function by modulating the gut microbiota and endocrine metabolism within the gut. However, the specific mechanisms and roles of the intestine in islets regulation remain unclear. Recent studies investigated that exosomes derived from gut microbiota can transport signals to remotely regulate islets ß-cell function, suggesting the possibility of novel signaling pathways mediated by gut exosomes in the regulation of the "gut-islet axis.". Methods: The exosomes were isolated from the intestinal enteroendocrine cell-line STC-1cells culture supernatants treated with palmitate acid (PA) or BSA. Metabolic stress models were established by separately subjecting MIN6 cells to PA stimulation and feeding mice with a high-fat diet. Intervention with exosomes in vitro and in vivo to assess the biological effects of exosomes on islets ß cells under metabolic stress. The Mas receptor antagonist A779 and ACE2ko mice were used to evaluate the role of exosomal ACE2. Results: We found ACE2, a molecule that plays a crucial role in the regulation of islets function, is abundantly expressed in exosomes derived from STC-1 under physiological normal condition (NCEO). These exosomes cannot only be taken up by ß-cells in vitro but also selectively transported to the islets in vivo. Following intervention with NCEXO, both Min6 cells in a lipotoxic environment and mice on a high-fat diet exhibited significant improvements in islets ß-cell function and ß-cell mass. Further investigations demonstrated that these protective effects are attributed to exosomal ACE2, as ACE2 inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome activation and reduces ß-cell pyroptosis. Conclusion: ACE2-enriched exosomes from the gut can selectively target islets, subsequently inhibiting NLRP3 inflammasome activation and ß cell pyroptosis, thereby restoring islets ß cell function under metabolic stress. This study provides novel insights into therapeutic strategies for the prevention and treatment of obesity and diabetes.

NLRP3 promotes radiation-induced brain injury by regulating microglial pyroptosis.

PURPOSE: Radiation-induced brain injury, one of the side effects of cranial radiotherapy in tumour patients, usually results in durable and serious cognitive disorders. Microglia are important innate immune-effector cells in the central nervous system. However, the interaction between microglia and neurons in radiation-induced brain injury remains uncharacterised. METHODS AND MATERIALS: We established a microglia-neuron indirect co-culture model to assess the interaction between them. Microglia exposed to radiation were examined for pyroptosis using lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release, Annexin V/PI staining, SYTOX staining and western blot. The role of nucleotide-binding oligomerisation domain-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) was investigated in microglia exposed to radiation and in mouse radiation brain injury model through siRNA or inhibitor. Mini-mental state examination and cytokines in blood were performed in 23 patients who had experienced cranial irradiation. RESULTS: Microglia exerted neurotoxic features after radiation in the co-culture model. NLRP3 was up-regulated in microglia exposed to radiation, and then caspase-1 was activated. Thus, the gasdermin D protein was cleaved, and it triggered pyroptosis in microglia, which released inflammatory cytokines. Meanwhile, treatment with siRNA NLRP3 in vitro and NLRP3 inhibitor in vivo attenuated the damaged neuron cell and cognitive impairment, respectively. What is more, we found that the patients after radiation with higher IL-6 were observed to have a decreased MMSE score. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that radiation-induced pyroptosis in microglia may promote radiation-induced brain injury via the secretion of neurotoxic cytokines. NLRP3 was evaluated as an important mediator in radiation-induced pyroptosis and a promising therapeutic target for radiation-induced brain injury.

Role of hypoxia-mediated pyroptosis in the development of extending knee joint contracture in rats.

Joint contracture is one of the common diseases clinically, and joint capsule fibrosis is considered to be one of the most important pathological changes of joint contracture. However, the underlying mechanism of joint capsule fibrosis is still controversial. The present study aims to establish an animal model of knee extending joint contracture in rats, and to investigate the role of hypoxia-mediated pyroptosis in the progression of joint contracture using this animal model. 36 male SD rats were selected, 6 of which were not immobilized and were used as control group, while 30 rats were divided into I-1 group (immobilized for 1 week following 7 weeks of free movement), I-2 group (immobilized for 2 weeks following 6 weeks of free movement), I-4 group (immobilized for 4 weeks following 4 weeks of free movement), I-6 group (immobilized for 6 weeks following 2 weeks of free movement) and I-8 group (immobilized for 8 weeks) according to different immobilizing time. The progression of joint contracture was assessed by the measurement of knee joint range of motion, collagen deposition in joint capsule was examined with Masson staining, protein expression levels of HIF-1α, NLRP3, Caspase-1, GSDMD-N, TGF-ß1, α-SMA and p-Smad3 in joint capsule were assessed using western blotting, and the morphological changes of fibroblasts were observed by transmission electron microscopy. The degree of total and arthrogenic contracture progressed from the first week and lasted until the first eight weeks after immobilization. The degree of total and arthrogenic contracture progressed rapidly in the first four weeks after immobilization and then progressed slowly. Masson staining indicated that collagen deposition in joint capsule gradually increased in the first 8 weeks following immobilization. Western blotting analysis showed that the protein levels of HIF-1α continued to increase during the first 8 weeks of immobilization, and the protein levels of pyroptosis-related proteins NLRP3, Caspase-1, GSDMD-N continued to increase in the first 4 weeks after immobilization and then decreased. The protein levels of fibrosis-related proteins TGF-ß1, p-Smad3 and α-SMA continued to increase in the first 8 weeks after immobilization. Transmission electron microscopy showed that 4 weeks of immobilization induced cell membrane rupture and cell contents overflow, which further indicated the activation of pyroptosis. Knee extending joint contracture animal model can be established by external immobilization orthosis in rats, and the activation of hypoxia-mediated pyroptosis may play a stimulating role in the process of joint capsule fibrosis and joint contracture.

LPS and ATP-induced Death of PMA-differentiated THP-1 Macrophages and its Validation.

Cell death is a fundamental process in all living organisms. The protocol establishes a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-induced phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate (PMA)-differentiated lipid deposition in human monocyte (THP-1) macrophage model to observe cell death. LPS combined with ATP is a classic inflammatory induction method, often used to study pyroptosis, but apoptosis and necroptosis also respond to stimulation by LPS/ATP. Under normal circumstances, phosphatidylserine is only localized in the inner leaflet of the plasma membrane. However, in the early stages of pyroptosis, apoptosis, and necroptosis, the cell membrane remains intact and exposed to phosphatidylserine, and in the later stages, the cell membrane loses its integrity. Here, flow cytometry was used to analyze Annexin V and 7-Aminoactinomycin D (AAD) double staining to detect the cell death from the whole cells. The results show that substantial cells died after stimulation with LPS/ATP. Using scanning electron microscopy, we observe the possible forms of cell death in individual cells. The results indicate that cells may undergo pyroptosis, apoptosis, or necroptosis after stimulation with LPS/ATP. This protocol focuses on observing the death of macrophages after stimulation with LPS/ATP. The results showed that cell death after LPS and ATP stimulation is not limited to pyroptosis and that apoptosis and necrotic apoptosis can also occur, helping researchers better understand cell death after LPS and ATP stimulation and choose a better experimental method.

Netrin-1 Promotes M2 Type Activation and Inhibits Pyroptosis of Microglial Cells by Depressing RAC1/Nf-?B Pathway to Alleviate Inflammatory Pain.

Netrin-1 (NTN-1) plays a vital role in the progress of nervous system development and inflammatory diseases. However, the role and underlying mechanism of NTN-1 in inflammatory pain (IP) are unclear. BV2 microglia were treated with LPS to mimic the cell status under IP. Adeno-associated virus carrying the NTN-1 gene (AAV-NTN-1) was used to overexpress NTN-1. Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA)-induced mouse was recruited as an in vivo model. MTT and commercial kits were utilized to evaluate cell viability and cell death of BV2 cells. The mRNA expressions and secretions of cytokines were measured using the ELISA method. Also, the pyroptosis and activation of BV2 cells were investigated based on western blotting. To verify the role of Rac1/NF-kappaB signaling, isochamaejasmin (ISO) and AAV-Rac1 were presented. The results showed that NTN-1 expression was decreased in LPS-treated BV2 microglia and spinal cord tissues of CFA-injected mice. Overexpressing NTN-1 dramatically reversed cell viability and decreased cell death rate of BV2 microglia under lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation, while the level of pyroptosis was inhibited. Besides, AAV-NTN-1 rescued the activation of microglia and inflammatory injury induced by LPS, decreasing IBA-1 expression, as well as iNOS, IL-1beta and IL-6 secretions. Meanwhile AAV-NTN-1 promoted the anti-inflammation response, including increases in Arg-1, IL-4 and IL-10 levels. In addition, the LPS-induced activation of Rac1/NF-kappaB signaling was depressed by NTN-1 overexpression. The same results were verified in a CFA-induced mouse model. In conclusion, NTN-1 alleviated IP by suppressing pyroptosis and promoting M2 type activation of microglia via inhibiting Rac1/NF-?B signaling, suggesting the protective role of NTN-1 in IP. Keywords: Netrin-1, Inflammatory pain, Pyroptosis, Microglia M2 activation, Rac1/NF-kappaB.

25-hydroxycholesterol aggravates oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation-induced pyroptosis through promoting activation of NLRP3 inflammasome in H9C2 cardiomyocytes.

25-hydroxycholesterol (25-HC) plays a role in the regulation of cell survival and immunity. However, the effect of 25-HC on myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (MI/R) injury remains unknown. Our present study aimed to investigate whether 25-HC aggravated MI/R injury through NLRP3 inflammasome-mediated pyroptosis. The overlapping differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in MI/R were identified from the GSE775, GSE45818, GSE58486, and GSE46395 datasets in Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. Gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway enrichment analyses were conducted using the database of Annotation, Visualization and Integration Discovery (DAVID). The protein-protein interaction (PPI) network of the overlapping DEGs was established using the Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes (STRING) database. These bioinformatics analyses indicated that cholesterol 25-hydroxylase (CH25H) was one of the crucial genes in MI/R injury. The oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) cell model was established to simulate MI/R injury. Western blot and RT-qPCR analysis demonstrated that CH25H was significantly upregulated in OGD/R-stimulated H9C2 cardiomyocytes. Moreover, knockdown of CH25H inhibited the OGD/R-induced pyroptosis and nod-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome activation, as demonstrated by cell counting kit-8 (CCK8), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), RT-qPCR, and western blotting assays. Conversely, 25-HC, which is synthesized by CH25H, promoted activation of NLRP3 inflammasome in OGD/R-stimulated H9C2 cardiomyocytes. In addition, the NLRP3 inhibitor BAY11-7082 attenuated 25-HC-induced H9C2 cell injury and pyroptosis under OGD/R condition. In conclusion, 25-HC could aggravate OGD/R-induced pyroptosis through promoting activation of NLRP3 inflammasome in H9C2 cells.

Hydralazine loaded nanodroplets combined with ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction to induce pyroptosis for tumor treatment.

Pyroptosis, a novel type of programmed cell death (PCD), which provides a feasible therapeutic option for the treatment of tumors. However, due to the hypermethylation of the promoter, the critical protein Gasdermin E (GSDME) is lacking in the majority of cancer cells, which cannot start the pyroptosis process and leads to dissatisfactory therapeutic effects. Additionally, the quick clearance, systemic side effects, and low concentration at the tumor site of conventional pyroptosis reagents restrict their use in clinical cancer therapy. Here, we described a combination therapy that induces tumor cell pyroptosis via the use of ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction (UTMD) in combination with DNA demethylation. The combined application of UTMD and hydralazine-loaded nanodroplets (HYD-NDs) can lead to the rapid release of HYD (a demethylation drug), which can cause the up-regulation of GSDME expression, and produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) by UTMD to cleave up-regulated GSDME, thereby inducing pyroptosis. HYD-NDs combined with ultrasound (US) group had the strongest tumor inhibition effect, and the tumor inhibition rate was 87.15% (HYD-NDs group: 51.41 ± 3.61%, NDs + US group: 32.73%±7.72%), indicating that the strategy had a more significant synergistic anti-tumor effect. In addition, as a new drug delivery carrier, HYD-NDs have great biosafety, tumor targeting, and ultrasound imaging performance. According to the results, the combined therapy reasonably regulated the process of tumor cell pyroptosis, which offered a new strategy for optimizing the therapy of GSDME-silenced solid tumors.

Caspase-1 deletion reveals pyroptosis participates in neural damage induced by cerebral ischemia/reperfusion in tMCAO model mice.

Pyroptosis, a form of programmed cell death, drives inflammation in the context of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion. The molecular mechanism of pyroptosis underlying ischemia/reperfusion, however, is not fully understood. The transient middle cerebral artery occlusion was applied to wild-type and caspase-1 knockout mice. 2,3,5-Triphenyltetrazolium chloride-staining and immunohistochemistry were used to identify the ischemic region, and western blot and immunofluorescence for the examination of neuronal pyroptosis. The expression of inflammatory factors and the behavioral function assessments were further conducted to examine the effects of caspase-1 knockout on protection against ischemia/reperfusion injury. Ischemia/reperfusion injury increased pyroptosis-related signals represented by the overexpression of pyroptosis-related proteins including caspase-1 and gasdermin D (GSDMD). Meanwhile, the number of GSDMD positive neurons increased in penumbra by immunofluorescence staining. Compared with wild-type mice, those with caspase-1 knockout exhibited decreased levels of pyroptosis-related proteins following ischemia/reperfusion. Furthermore, ischemia/reperfusion attack-induced brain infarction, cerebral edema, inflammatory factors, and neurological outcomes were partially improved in caspase-1 knockout mice. The data indicate that pyroptosis participates in ischemia/reperfusion induced-damage, and the caspase-1 might be involved, it provides some new insights into the molecular mechanism of ischemia.

Myeloid Trem2 ameliorates the progression of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease by regulating macrophage pyroptosis and inflammation resolution.

BACKGROUND: The prevalence of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is increasing year by year and has become one of the leading causes of end-stage liver disease worldwide. Triggering Receptor Expressed on Myeloid Cells 2 (Trem2) has been confirmed to play an essential role in the progression of MASLD, but its specific mechanism still needs to be clarified. This study aims to explore the role and mechanism of Trem2 in MASLD. METHODS: Human liver tissues were obtained from patients with MASLD and controls. Myeloid-specific knockout mice (Trem2mKO) and myeloid-specific overexpression mice (Trem2TdT) were fed a high-fat diet, either AMLN or CDAHFD, to establish the MASLD model. Relevant signaling molecules were assessed through lipidomics and RNA-seq analyses after that. RESULTS: Trem2 is upregulated in human MASLD/MASH-associated macrophages and is associated with hepatic steatosis and inflammation progression. Hepatic steatosis and inflammatory responses are exacerbated with the knockout of myeloid Trem2 in MASLD mice, while mice overexpressing Trem2 exhibit the opposite phenomenon. Mechanistically, Trem2mKO can aggravate macrophage pyroptosis through the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and amplify the resulting inflammatory response. At the same time, Trem2 promotes the inflammation resolution phenotype transformation of macrophages through TGFß1, thereby promoting tissue repair. CONCLUSIONS: Myeloid Trem2 ameliorates the progression of Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease by regulating macrophage pyroptosis and inflammation resolution. We believe targeting myeloid Trem2 could represent a potential avenue for treating MASLD.

Inhibiting the IRAK4/NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling pathway can reduce pyroptosis in hippocampal neurons and seizure episodes in epilepsy.

BACKGROUND: Interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 4 (IRAK4) plays an important role in immune modulation in various central nervous system disorders. However, IRAK4 has not been reported in epilepsy models in animal and clinical studies, nor has its involvement in regulating pyroptosis in epilepsy. METHOD: First, we performed transcriptome sequencing, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, and western blot analysis on the hippocampal tissues of refractory epilepsy patients to measure the mRNA and protein levels of IRAK4 and pyroptosis-related proteins. Second, we successfully established a pentylenetetrazol (PTZ)-induced seizure mouse model. We conducted behavioral tests, electroencephalography, virus injection, and molecular biology experiments to investigate the role of IRAK4 in seizure activity regulation. RESULTS: IRAK4 is upregulated in the hippocampus of epilepsy patients and PTZ-induced seizure model mice. IRAK4 expression is observed in the hilar neurons of PTZ-induced mice. Knocking down IRAK4 in PTZ-induced mice downregulated pyroptosis-related protein expression and alleviated seizure activity. Overexpressing IRAK4 in naive mice upregulated pyroptosis-related protein expression and increased PTZ-induced abnormal neuronal discharges. IRAK4 and NF-κB were found to bind to each other in patient hippocampal tissue samples. Pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate reversed the pyroptosis-related protein expression increase caused by PTZ. PF-06650833 alleviated seizure activity and inhibited pyroptosis in PTZ-induced seizure mice. CONCLUSION: IRAK4 plays a key role in the pathological process of epilepsy, and its potential mechanism may be related to pyroptosis mediated by the NF-κB/NLRP3 signaling pathway. PF-06650833 has potential as a therapeutic agent for alleviating epilepsy.

Egr1 promotes Nlrc4-dependent neuronal pyroptosis through phlda1 in an in-vitro model of intracerebral hemorrhage.

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a fatal brain injury, but the current treatments for it are inadequate to reduce the severity of secondary brain injury. Our study aims to explore the molecular mechanism of Egr1 and Phlda1 in regulating hemin-induced neuronal pyroptosis, and hope to provide novel therapeutic targets for ICH treatment. Mouse hippocampal neuron cells treated with hemin were used to simulate an in-vitro ICH model. Using qRT-PCR and western blot to evaluate mRNA and protein concentrations. MTT assay was utilized to assess cell viability. LDH levels were determined by lactate Dehydrogenase Activity Assay Kit. IL-1ß and IL-18 levels were examined by ELISA. The interaction of Egr1 and Phlda1 promoter was evaluated using chromatin immunoprecipitation and dual-luciferase reporter assays. Egr1 and Phlda1 were both upregulated in HT22 cells following hemin treatment. Hemin treatment caused a significant reduction in HT22 cell viability, an increase in Nlrc4 and HT22 cell pyroptosis, and heightened inflammation. However, knocking down Egr1 neutralized hemin-induced effects on HT22 cells. Egr1 bound to the promoter of Phlda1 and transcriptionally activated Phlda1. Silencing Phlda1 significantly reduced Nlrc4-dependent neuronal pyroptosis. Conversely, overexpressing Phlda1 mitigated the inhibitory effects of Egr1 knockdown on Nlrc4 and neuronal pyroptosis during ICH. Egr1 enhanced neuronal pyroptosis mediated by Nlrc4 under ICH via transcriptionally activating Phlda1.

Cell death in atherosclerosis.

A complex and evolutionary process that involves the buildup of lipids in the arterial wall and the invasion of inflammatory cells results in atherosclerosis. Cell death is a fundamental biological process that is essential to the growth and dynamic equilibrium of all living things. Serious cell damage can cause a number of metabolic processes to stop, cell structure to be destroyed, or other irreversible changes that result in cell death. It is important to note that studies have shown that the two types of programmed cell death, apoptosis and autophagy, influence the onset and progression of atherosclerosis by controlling these cells. This could serve as a foundation for the creation of fresh atherosclerosis prevention and treatment strategies. Therefore, in this review, we summarized the molecular mechanisms of cell death, including apoptosis, pyroptosis, autophagy, necroptosis, ferroptosis and necrosis, and discussed their effects on endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells and macrophages in the process of atherosclerosis, so as to provide reference for the next step to reveal the mechanism of atherosclerosis.

Gasdermin and MLKL necrotic cell death effectors: Signaling and diseases.

Diverse inflammatory conditions, from infections to autoimmune disease, are often associated with cellular damage and death. Apoptotic cell death has evolved to minimize its inflammatory potential. By contrast, necrotic cell death via necroptosis and pyroptosis-driven by membrane-damaging MLKL and gasdermins, respectively-can both initiate and propagate inflammatory responses. In this review, we provide insights into the function and regulation of MLKL and gasdermin necrotic effector proteins and drivers of plasma membrane rupture. We evaluate genetic evidence that MLKL- and gasdermin-driven necrosis may either provide protection against, or contribute to, disease states in a context-dependent manner. These cumulative insights using gene-targeted mice underscore the necessity for future research examining pyroptotic and necroptotic cell death in human tissue, as a basis for developing specific necrotic inhibitors with the potential to benefit a spectrum of pathological conditions.

Astragaloside IV Alleviates Doxorubicin-Induced Cardiotoxicity by Inhibiting Cardiomyocyte Pyroptosis through the SIRT1/NLRP3 Pathway.

Doxorubicin (DOX) is a powerful anthracycline antineoplastic drug used to treat a wide spectrum of tumors. However, its clinical application is limited due to cardiotoxic side effects. Astragaloside IV (AS IV), one of the major compounds present in aqueous extracts of Astragalus membranaceus, possesses potent cardiovascular protective properties, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are unclear. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the effect of AS IV on DOX-induced cardiotoxicity (DIC). Our findings revealed that DOX induced pyroptosis through the caspase-1/gasdermin D (GSDMD) and caspase-3/gasdermin E (GSDME) pathways. AS IV treatment significantly improved the cardiac function and alleviated myocardial injury in DOX-exposed mice by regulating intestinal flora and inhibiting pyroptosis; markedly suppressed the levels of cleaved caspase-1, N-GSDMD, cleaved caspase-3, and N-GSDME; and reversed DOX-induced downregulation of silent information regulator 1 (SIRT1) and activation of the NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in mice. The SIRT1 inhibitor EX527 significantly blocked the protective effects of AS IV. Collectively, our results suggest that AS IV protects against DIC by inhibiting pyroptosis through the SIRT1/NLRP3 pathway.

Exploring ncRNA-mediated pathways in sepsis-induced pyroptosis.

Sepsis, a potentially fatal illness caused by an improper host response to infection, remains a serious problem in the world of healthcare. In recent years, the role of ncRNA has emerged as a pivotal aspect in the intricate landscape of cellular regulation. The exploration of ncRNA-mediated regulatory networks reveals their profound influence on key molecular pathways orchestrating pyroptotic responses during septic conditions. Through a comprehensive analysis of current literature, we navigate the diverse classes of ncRNAs, including miRNAs, lncRNAs, and circRNAs, elucidating their roles as both facilitators and inhibitors in the modulation of pyroptotic processes. Furthermore, we highlight the potential diagnostic and therapeutic implications of targeting these ncRNAs in the context of sepsis, aiming to cover the method for novel and effective strategies to mitigate the devastating consequences of septic pathogenesis. As we unravel the complexities of this regulatory axis, a deeper understanding of the intricate crosstalk between ncRNAs and pyroptosis emerges, offering promising avenues for advancing our approach to sepsis intervention. The intricate pathophysiology of sepsis is examined in this review, which explores the dynamic interaction between ncRNAs and pyroptosis, a highly regulated kind of programmed cell death.

Pyroptosis-mediator GSDMD promotes Parkinson's disease pathology via microglial activation and dopaminergic neuronal death.

GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis occurs in the nigrostriatal pathway in Parkinson's disease animals, yet the role of GSDMD in neuroinflammation and death of dopaminergic neurons in Parkinson's disease remains elusive. Here, our in vivo and in vitro studies demonstrated that GSDMD, as a pyroptosis executor, contributed to glial reaction and death of dopaminergic neurons across different Parkinson's disease models. The ablation of the Gsdmd attenuated Parkinson's disease damage by reducing dopaminergic neuronal death, microglial activation, and detrimental transformation. Disulfiram, an inhibitor blocking GSDMD pore formation, efficiently curtailed pyroptosis, thereby lessening the pathology of Parkinson's disease. Additionally, a modification in GSDMD was identified in the blood of Parkinson's disease patients in contrast to healthy subjects. Therefore, the detected alteration in GSDMD within the blood of Parkinson's disease patients and the protective impact of disulfiram could be promising for the diagnostic and therapeutic approaches against Parkinson's disease.

BRCC3 mediates inflammation and pyroptosis in cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury by activating the NLRP6 inflammasome.

AIMS: Neuroinflammation and pyroptosis are key mediators of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury-induced pathogenic cascades. BRCC3, the human homolog of BRCC36, is implicated in neurological disorders and plays a crucial role in neuroinflammation and pyroptosis. However, its effects and potential mechanisms in cerebral I/R injury in mice are unclear. METHODS: Cellular localization of BRCC3 and the interaction between BRCC3 and NLRP6 were assessed. Middle cerebral artery occlusion/reperfusion (MCAO) and oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R) models were established in mice and HT22 cells, respectively, to simulate cerebral I/R injury in vivo and in vitro. RESULTS: BRCC3 protein expression peaked 24 h after MCAO and OGD/R. BRCC3 knockdown reduced the inflammation and pyroptosis caused by cerebral I/R injury and ameliorated neurological deficits in mice after MCAO. The effects of BRCC3 on inflammation and pyroptosis may be mediated by NLRP6 inflammasome activation. Moreover, both BRCC3 and its N- and C-terminals interacted with NLRP6, and both BRCC3 and its terminals reduced NLRP6 ubiquitination. Additionally, BRCC3 affected the interaction between NLRP6 and ASC, which may be related to inflammasome activation. CONCLUSION: BRCC3 shows promise as a novel target to enhance neurological recovery and attenuate the inflammatory responses and pyroptosis caused by NLRP6 activation in cerebral I/R injury.

Lipopolysaccharide-induced intestinal inflammation on AIM2-mediated pyroptosis in the brain of rats with cerebral small vessel disease.

Cerebral small vessel disease (CSVD) is a cerebral vascular disease with insidious onset and poor clinical treatment effect, which is related to neuroinflammation. This study investigated whether lipopolysaccharide-induced intestinal inflammation enhanced the level of pyroptosis in the brain of rats with CSVD. The bilateral carotid artery occlusion (BCAO) model was selected as the object of study. Firstly, behavioral tests and Hematoxylin-eosin staining (HE staining) were performed to determine whether the model was successful, and then the AIM2 inflammasome and pyroptosis indexes (AIM2, ASC, Caspase-1, IL-1ß, GSDMD, N-GSDMD) in the brain were detected by Western blotting and Immunohistochemistry (IHC). Finally, a single intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was used to induce intestinal inflammation in rats, the expression of GSDMD and N-GSDMD in the brain was analyzed by Western blotting and to see if pyroptosis caused by intestinal inflammation can be inhibited by Disulfiram, an inhibitor of pyroptosis. The results showed that the inflammatory response and pyroptosis mediated by the AIM2 inflammasome in BCAO rats were present in both brain and intestine. The expression of N-GSDMD, a key marker of pyroptosis, in the brain was significantly increased and inhibited by Disulfiram after LPS-induced enhancement of intestinal inflammation. This study shows that AIM2-mediated inflammasome activation and pyroptosis exist in both brain and intestine in the rat model of CSVD. The enhancement of intestinal inflammation will increase the level of pyroptosis in the brain. In the future, targeted regulation of the AIM2 inflammasome may become a new strategy for the clinical treatment of CSVD.

Chemical Hypoxia Induces Pyroptosis in Neuronal Cells by Caspase-Dependent Gasdermin Activation.

Hypoxia-induced neuronal death is a major cause of neurodegenerative diseases. Pyroptosis is a type of inflammatory programmed cell death mediated by elevated intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Therefore, we hypothesized that hypoxia-induced ROS may trigger pyroptosis via caspase-dependent gasdermin (GSDM) activation in neuronal cells. To test this, we exposed SH-SY5Y neuronal cells to cobalt chloride (CoCl2) to trigger hypoxia and then evaluated the cellular and molecular responses to hypoxic conditions. Our data revealed that CoCl2 induced cell growth inhibition and the expression of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α in SH-SY5Y cells. Exposure to CoCl2 elicits excessive accumulation of cytosolic and mitochondrial ROS in SH-SY5Y cells. CoCl2-induced hypoxia not only activated the intrinsic (caspases-3, -7, and -9) apoptotic pathway but also induced caspase-3/GSDME-dependent and NLRP3/caspase-1/GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis in SH-SY5Y cells. Importantly, inhibition of caspase-3 and -1 using selective inhibitors ameliorated pyroptotic cell death and downregulated GSDM protein expression. Additionally, treatment with a ROS scavenger significantly suppressed caspase- and pyroptosis-related proteins in CoCl2-treated SH-SY5Y cells. Our findings indicate that hypoxia-mediated ROS production plays an important role in the activation of both apoptosis and pyroptosis in SH-SY5Y neuronal cells, thus providing a potential therapeutic strategy for hypoxia-related neurological diseases.

[Research Progress of Pyroptosis in Leukemia: from Mechanism to Treatment --Review].

Pyroptosis is a programmed death mediated by activated caspase and Gasdermin family proteins, characterized by cell swelling, cytosolysis and release of inflammatory factors. Leukemia is a malignant disease characterized by abnormal differentiation and proliferation of hematopoietic stem cells, thus seriously threating human health. In recent years, it has been found that the transformation, proliferation, metastasis and treatment response of leukemia cells are closely related to pyrodeath. Pyroptosis provides a new perspective for the study of leukemia. This paper reviews the types and molecular mechanisms of pyroptosis, the role of pyroptosis in the occurrence and development of leukemia and the treatment of leukemia, so as to provide some references for further study of the relationship between pyroptosis and leukemia, in order to provide a new strategy for the treatment of leukemia.