Pronouns reactivate conceptual representations in human hippocampal neurons.

During discourse comprehension, every new word adds to an evolving representation of meaning that accumulates over consecutive sentences and constrains the next words. To minimize repetition and utterance length, languages use pronouns, like the word "she," to refer to nouns and phrases that were previously introduced. It has been suggested that language comprehension requires that pronouns activate the same neuronal representations as the nouns themselves. We recorded from individual neurons in the human hippocampus during a reading task. Cells that were selective to a particular noun were later reactivated by pronouns that refer to the cells' preferred noun. These results imply that concept cells contribute to a rapid and dynamic semantic memory network that is recruited during language comprehension.

Pulsed lighting for adults with Dyslexia: very limited impact, confined to individuals with severe reading deficits.

The goal of this study is to evaluate the impact of pulsed lighting on the reading performance of young adults with dyslexia. A total of 42 participants were recruited, including individuals diagnosed with developmental dyslexia and adults without reported reading difficulties. The severity of each participant's reading deficit was assessed on a continuous scale using a reading impairment score, derived from four reading tests: an isolated-word reading test, a pseudoword reading test, and two reading fluency tests. The impairment score ranged from 0 (no impairment) to 4 (severe impairment across all tests). To examine the potential effect of pulsed lighting, we measured (1) sentence reading speed, expressed as a reading accessibility index (ACC), and (2) text comprehension, expressed as a comprehension score. These measures were taken under three lighting conditions: standard lighting, pulsed lighting, and a combination of the two. Linear mixed-effects models were applied to assess the effects of lighting on ACC and comprehension, controlling for the reading impairment score. We found no effect of lighting conditions on either ACC or comprehension, except in the most impaired readers, who showed a small but significant increase of 7% in ACC. However, even with pulsed lighting, impaired readers did not reach the performance level of skilled adult readers. In conclusion, the study did not demonstrate a clear positive impact of pulsed lighting on the reading skills of adults with dyslexia.

A revisit to interactions of stimulus quality and semantic context on N400 in visual word recognition.

Much behavioral research has revealed interactive effects between stimulus quality and semantic priming in visual word recognition, practically in favor of the interactive activation model. However, the limited number of event-related brain potential (ERP) studies have yielded inconsistent results considering this interaction's impact on N400 amplitude. The current ERP study aimed to examine whether the joint effects of stimulus quality and semantic priming were specific to the lexical decision task. We used both behavioral measures and ERP recordings to evaluate the joint effects of stimulus degradation (i.e. highly vs. slightly degraded) and semantic priming (i.e. semantically related vs. unrelated) in a lexical decision task involving visual recognition of Chinese characters. The results showed significant degradation-by-priming interactions on response times and N400 amplitude ( P  < 0.05), with larger semantic priming effects on slightly degraded targets. These converging behavioral and electrophysiological findings provide evidence in accordance with the interactive activation models of visual word recognition, in which the early-stage visual processing (i.e. degradation) cascades into the later-stage semantic processing (i.e. priming), thus yielding interactions observed in N400 amplitude.

Does the optimal level of illumination improve both visual functions and visual comfort in schoolchildren with low vision?

Lighting modification is commonly performed by optometrists and occupational therapists to enhance visibility and visual comfort among schoolchildren with low vision. The purpose of this study is to determine the optimal illumination level for visual function and visual comfort of schoolchildren with low vision and the relationship between them. A cross-sectional study was conducted to assess five levels of illumination ranging from 125 lux to 2000 lux to determine the optimal illumination for visual functions and visual comfort in schoolchildren with low vision from a special education school for blind in Malaysia. Purposive sampling was done to recruit forty-two schoolchildren with low vision for this study. Visual functions assessed were visual acuity, measured using the Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study LogMAR chart at distance and near, contrast sensitivity (CS) measured using the Pelli-Robson chart at distance and the Mars CS chart at near. Reading speed was determined using the Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Malay Language Related Word Reading Text test chart. Subjects were asked to rate their visual comfort using a validated questionnaire at the end of each measurement of visual functions and reading speed for the different illumination levels. Visual acuity and contrast sensitivity at distance and near, visual comfort and reading speed improved significantly with increase in illumination levels (p<0.05). However, the interaction between illumination level and level of low vision was not significant (p>0.05). Visual comfort was significantly associated with visual function (p<0.05), while direct association between visual comfort and illumination level was not significant (p>0.05). Optimal illumination for improvement of visual function, reading speed and visual comfort range from 276.67 lux to 701.59 lux. Majority of the schoolchildren with low vision had improved visual function, reading speed and visual comfort with increased illumination. Illumination of at least 600 lux is recommended for maximum visual functioning and visual comfort of schoolchildren with low vision.

Intergenerational effects of a casino-funded family transfer program on educational outcomes in an American Indian community.

Cash transfer policies have been widely discussed as mechanisms to curb intergenerational transmission of socioeconomic disadvantage. In this paper, we take advantage of a large casino-funded family transfer program introduced in a Southeastern American Indian Tribe to generate difference-in-difference estimates of the link between children's cash transfer exposure and third grade math and reading test scores of their offspring. Here we show greater math (0.25 standard deviation [SD], p =.0148, 95% Confidence Interval [CI]: 0.05, 0.45) and reading (0.28 SD, p = .0066, 95% CI: 0.08, 0.49) scores among American Indian students whose mother was exposed ten years longer than other American Indian students to the cash transfer during her childhood (or relative to the non-American Indian student referent group). Exploratory analyses find that a mother's decision to pursue higher education and delay fertility appears to explain some, but not all, of the relation between cash transfers and children's test scores. In this rural population, large cash transfers have the potential to reduce intergenerational cycles of poverty-related educational outcomes.

Software for assessment and monitoring the decoding skills development of children from the elementary school: validity based on response process. / Software para avaliação e monitoramento do desenvolvimento da decodificação em escolares do Ensino Fundamental I: validade baseada nos processos de resposta.

PURPOSE: To continue the validation process of the Decoding Development Monitoring Protocol (PRADE) in software format in the validity evidence stage based on response processes. METHODS: 250 individuals participated in this study, 125 individuals from private schools and 125 individuals from public schools. The assessment was carried out in person using the software that hosts the instrument's tasks, which are organized into decoding linguistically balanced words and non-words, respecting the decoding rules of Brazilian Portuguese. The software prepares an individual performance report for each participant, counting the decoding time for each stimulus, as well as the number of words decoded correctly. The data is organized considering the correct decoding time of the stimuli, decoding accuracy and percentage of correct answers. All data underwent statistical analysis using SPSS software. RESULTS: The data indicated an important effect of the length of words and non-words on public and private school students. Furthermore, it was possible to observe the evolution of decoding, depending on the school year, in all the variables studied. In both groups, a strong influence of non-words on student performance throughout Elementary School I was observed. CONCLUSION: The data indicate validity in the analysis of response processes, since it was possible to adequately characterize the performance of school children public and private throughout Elementary School I, characterizing each group, as well as their differences according to the advancement of schooling.

OBJETIVO: Dar seguimento ao processo de validação do Protocolo de Acompanhamento do Desenvolvimento da Decodificação (PRADE) em formato de software na etapa de evidência de validade baseada nos processos de resposta. MÉTODO: Foram participantes deste estudo 250 indivíduos, sendo 125 indivíduos oriundos de escola privada e 125 indivíduos oriundos de escola pública. A avaliação foi realizada presencialmente por meio do software que hospeda as tarefas do instrumento, as quais são organizadas em decodificação de palavras e não-palavras balanceadas linguisticamente respeitando-se as regras de decodificação do Português Brasileiro. O software elabora relatório individual de desempenho de cada participante contabilizando o tempo de decodificação de cada estímulo, assim como o número de palavras decodificadas corretamente. Os dados são organizados de forma a contabilizar o tempo de decodificação correta dos estímulos, acurácia de decodificação e porcentagem de acertos. Todos os dados passaram por análise estatística por meio do software SPSS. RESULTADOS: Os dados indicaram importante efeito da extensão de palavras e não-palavras em estudantes de escola pública e privada. Ademais, foi possível observar a evolução da decodificação, em função do ano escolar, em todas as variáveis estudadas. Em ambos os grupos observou-se forte influência das não-palavras no desempenho dos estudantes em todo o Ensino Fundamental I. CONCLUSÃO: Os dados indicam validade na análise dos processos de resposta, uma vez que foi possível caracterizar adequadamente o desempenho de crianças de escola pública e privada em todo o Ensino Fundamental I, caracterizando cada grupo, bem como suas diferenças conforme o avanço da escolaridade.

What makes working memory work? A multifaceted account of the predictive power of working memory capacity.

Working memory capacity (WMC) has received a great deal of attention in cognitive psychology partly because WMC correlates broadly with other abilities (e.g., reading comprehension, second-language proficiency, fluid intelligence) and thus seems to be a critical aspect of cognitive ability. However, it is still rigorously debated why such correlations occur. Some theories posit a single ability (e.g., attention control, short-term memory capacity, controlled memory search) as the primary reason behind WMC's predictiveness, whereas others argue that WMC is predictive because it taps into multiple abilities. Here, we tested these single- and multifaceted accounts of WMC with a large-scale (N = 974) individual-differences investigation of WMC and three hypothesized mediators: attention control, primary memory, and secondary memory. We found evidence for a multifaceted account, such that no single ability could fully mediate the relation between WMC and higher order cognition (i.e., reading comprehension and fluid intelligence). Further, such an effect held regardless of whether WMC was measured via complex span or n-back. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Incremental Discourse-Update Constrains Number Agreement Attraction Effect.

While a large body of work in sentence comprehension has explored how different types of linguistic information are used to guide syntactic parsing, less is known about the effect of discourse structure. This study investigates this question, focusing on the main and subordinate discourse contrast manifested in the distinction between restrictive relative clauses (RRCs) and appositive relative clauses (ARCs) in American English. In three self-paced reading experiments, we examined whether both RRCs and ARCs interfere with the matrix clause content and give rise to the agreement attraction effect. While the standard attraction effect was consistently observed in the baseline RRC structures, the effect varied in the ARC structures. These results collectively suggest that discourse structure indeed constrains syntactic dependency resolution. Most importantly, we argue that what is at stake is not the static discourse structure properties at the global sentence level. Instead, attention should be given to the incremental update of the discourse structure in terms of which discourse questions are active at any given moment of a discourse. The current findings have implications for understanding the way discourse structure, specifically the active state of discourse questions, constrains memory retrieval.

Reading skill profiles of dysfluent readers in grades 2 and 3.

Text reading fluency (TRF) is a common reading intervention target in second and third grade. TRF requires the integration of several skills that result in several pathways to dysfluent reading. However, when applying the drill-down approach to intervention targeting, practitioners are guided to consider students' rate and accuracy when reading connected text after ruling out decoding difficulties. A question remains whether students' reading rate and accuracy alone is sensitive to differences in the underlying skills that promote TRF. We used latent profile analysis to investigate whether different profiles of component reading skills could be identified among second- (n = 127) and third-grade (n = 170) students who were referred for an intervention targeting TRF. Most students were identified as white (56%) and students were predominately English speakers (87%). At the beginning of the intervention, we measured participants' skills in listening comprehension, reading comprehension, reading vocabulary, word reading efficiency, and decoding efficiency. Four profiles emerged in both grades with similar patterns in terms of the component skills influencing TRF. Students in two of the profiles demonstrated relative strengths in word reading or reading comprehension with their other skills near the sample average. A third profile approximated the sample average across all component skills whereas the fourth profile was below the sample average in all measured skills. However, some of the empirically derived profiles did not differ in terms of students' average reading rate. For example, the average words read correct per minute did not significantly differ between students with relative strengths in comprehension and students with relative strengths with word reading. Our results suggest that differences in students' text reading rate and accuracy may not always capture potentially relevant differences in the skills that influence TRF.

Executive functioning profiles and mathematical and reading achievement in Grades 2, 6, and 10.

Using a person-centered approach, we aimed to identify different executive functioning profiles to assess heterogeneity across individuals within the same school grade through latent profile analysis. A sample of 150 Grade 2 (7-8 years old), 150 Grade 6 (11-12 years old), and 150 Grade 10 (15-16 years old) children and adolescents were assessed on 11 different executive tasks representative of the three main executive functioning subcomponents (i.e., inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and working memory), fluid intelligence, processing speed, problem-solving, and reading comprehension. Three different executive functioning profiles of different patterns of interactions based on inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and working memory within and between grades were identified. Moreover, these profiles were differentially related to reading comprehension and mathematical achievement. Second, as expected, we did not find these profiles to be associated with sociodemographic variables such as chronological age or sex. Still, fluid intelligence and processing speed were differentially related to the different profiles at each grade. We also found that the executive functioning profiles interacted with each cognitive skill (i.e., fluid intelligence and processing speed) in predicting reading comprehension and math achievement. These findings provide valuable insights for developing preventive and intervention strategies in education.

Understanding the Role of Eye Movement Pattern and Consistency in Isolated English Word Reading Through Hidden Markov Modeling.

In isolated English word reading, readers have the optimal performance when their initial eye fixation is directed to the area between the beginning and word center, that is, the optimal viewing position (OVP). Thus, how well readers voluntarily direct eye gaze to this OVP during isolated word reading may be associated with reading performance. Using Eye Movement analysis with Hidden Markov Models, we discovered two representative eye movement patterns during lexical decisions through clustering, which focused at the OVP and the word center, respectively. Higher eye movement similarity to the OVP-focusing pattern predicted faster lexical decision time in addition to cognitive abilities and lexical knowledge. However, the OVP-focusing pattern was associated with longer isolated single letter naming time, suggesting conflicting visual abilities required for identifying isolated letters and multi-letter words. In contrast, in both word and pseudoword naming, although clustering did not reveal an OVP-focused pattern, higher consistency of the first fixation as measured in entropy predicted faster naming time in addition to cognitive abilities and lexical knowledge. Thus, developing a consistent eye movement pattern focusing on the OVP is essential for word orthographic processing and reading fluency. This finding has important implications for interventions for reading difficulties.

Spatial Variability in Relationships between Early Childhood Lead Exposure and Standardized Test Scores in Fourth Grade North Carolina Public School Students (2013-2016).

BACKGROUND: Exposure to lead during childhood is detrimental to children's health. The extent to which the association between lead exposure and elementary school academic outcomes varies across geography is not known. OBJECTIVE: Estimate associations between blood lead levels (BLLs) and fourth grade standardized test scores in reading and mathematics in North Carolina using models that allow associations between BLL and test scores to vary spatially across communities. METHODS: We link geocoded, individual-level, standardized test score data for North Carolina public school students in fourth grade (2013-2016) with detailed birth records and blood lead testing data retrieved from the North Carolina childhood blood lead state registry on samples typically collected at 1-6 y of age. BLLs were categorized as: 1µg/dL (reference), 2µg/dL, 3-4µg/dL and ≥5µg/dL. We then fit spatially varying coefficient models that incorporate information sharing (smoothness), across neighboring communities via a Gaussian Markov random field to provide a global estimate of the association between BLL and test scores, as well as census tract-specific estimates (i.e., spatial coefficients). Models adjusted for maternal- and child-level covariates and were fit separately for reading and math. RESULTS: The average BLL across the 91,706 individuals in the analysis dataset was 2.84µg/dL. Individuals were distributed across 2,002 (out of 2,195) census tracts in North Carolina. In models adjusting for child sex, birth weight percentile for gestational age, and Medicaid participation as well as maternal race/ethnicity, educational attainment, marital status, and tobacco use, BLLs of 2µg/dL, 3-4µg/dL and ≥5µg/dL were associated with overall lower reading test scores of -0.28 [95% confidence interval (CI): -0.43, -0.12], -0.53 (-0.69, -0.38), and -0.79 (-0.99, -0.604), respectively. For BLLs of 1µg/dL, 2µg/dL, 3-4µg/dL and ≥5µg/dL, spatial coefficients-that is, tract-specific adjustments in reading test score relative to the "global" coefficient-ranged from -9.70 to 2.52, -3.19 to 3.90, -11.14 to 7.85, and -4.73 to 4.33, respectively. Results for mathematics were similar to those for reading. CONCLUSION: The association between lead exposure and reading and mathematics test scores exhibits considerable heterogeneity across North Carolina communities. These results emphasize the need for prevention and mitigation efforts with respect to lead exposures everywhere, with special attention to locations where the cognitive impact is elevated. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13898.

Functional interactions underlying visuospatial orthographic processes in Chinese reading.

As a logographic writing system, Chinese reading involves the processing of visuospatial orthographic (ORT) properties. However, this aspect has received relatively less attention in neuroimaging research, which has tended to emphasize phonological (PHO) and semantic (SEM) aspects in processing Chinese characters. Here, we compared the functional correlates supporting all these three processes in a functional MRI single-character reading study, in which 35 native Chinese adults were asked to make ORT, PHO, and SEM judgments in separate task-specific activation blocks. Our findings revealed increased involvement of the right hemisphere in processing Chinese visuospatial orthography, particularly evident in the right ventral occipito-temporal cortex (vOTC). Additionally, time course analysis revealed that the left superior parietal gyrus (SPG) was initially involved in SEM processing but contributed to the visuospatial processing of words in a later time window. Finally, ORT processing demonstrated stronger recruitment of left vOTC-SPG-middle frontal gyrus (MFG) functional connectivity compared to SEM processing. This functional coupling correlated with reduced regional engagement of the left vOTC and MFG, highlighting that visuospatial ORT processes in reading Chinese rely on functional interactions among key regions rather than local regional processes. In conclusion, these findings underscore visuospatial ORT processes as a distinctive feature of reading logographic characters.

Application of cognitive load theory in reading English academic articles on medical education among Chinese undergraduate medical students.

Reading English academic articles is the cornerstone of innovative medical education and scientific research. However, limited by both language and professional knowledge, many nonnative English-speaking undergraduate medical students have a fear of reading English academic articles. The purpose of this study was to explore whether cognitive load theory can be a useful guiding strategy to promote English medical education article reading among Chinese undergraduates, while also evaluating students' attitudes toward the reading activities and cognitive load entailed in the last article they read. In the reading activities, students needed to read 19 English academic articles that are closely related to their courses. A questionnaire was administered after the students finished reading the 19th article to determine their attitudes toward reading English medical education articles and the cognitive load involved in reading the 19th article. The results showed that students' overall perceptions of reading English medical education articles were positive. Most students felt that their ability to read English academic articles and related skills had improved. The mean scores for students' intrinsic and germane cognitive loads in reading the 19th article were 6.44 ± 1.81 and 6.92 ± 2.05, respectively. The mean score for the extraneous cognitive load was 2.31 ± 2.63. In conclusion, the cognitive load theory can serve as the basis for an effective strategy to guide English medical education article reading activities among undergraduates in China. Meanwhile, students' attitudes toward the reading activities were favorable, and they read the latest article within an acceptable cognitive load.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Many nonnative English-speaking undergraduates have a fear of reading English academic articles. This study was performed to explore whether cognitive load theory can be a useful guiding strategy to promote English article reading among Chinese medical undergraduates. The results showed that cognitive load theory can serve as the basis for an effective strategy to guide English medical education article reading activities among undergraduates in China, and students' attitudes toward the reading activities were favorable.

The impact of different postures on acute intraocular pressure and accommodation responses during reading.

INTRODUCTION: To investigate the effects of different reading postures on intraocular pressure (IOP) and near-work-induced transient myopia (NITM) in children with myopia. METHODS: Sixty myopic children were instructed to read a book text placed at 33 cm for 30 min with two different reading postures: head bowed and head upright postures. The participants' IOP and NITM were assessed using a rebound tonometer and an open-field autorefractor. The measurement of IOP was conducted prior to reading, during reading sessions (at 5, 10, 20, and 30-min intervals), and after a 5-min recovery period. RESULTS: For the head bowed posture, the mean baseline IOP was 16.13 ± 2.47 mmHg. A significant rise in IOP was observed after 5 min of reading (17.17 ± 2.97 mmHg; +1.03 ± 2.29 mmHg; p = 0.014). Subsequent measurements revealed a further increase after 20 min (17.87 ± 2.90 mmHg; +1.73 ± 2.58 mmHg; p < 0.001), which continued to persist even after 30 min of reading (17.57 ± 3.46 mmHg; +1.43 ± 2.66 mmHg; p = 0.002). The IOP at different time points measured in the head upright posture did not show any significant difference in comparison to the baseline measurement (all p = 1.000). Compared to reading with the head upright, reading with the head bowed resulted in a greater increase in IOP at each time point (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the NITM was higher for reading with the head bowed than for reading with head upright at 30 min (-0.24 ± 0.53 D vs. -0.12 ± 0.47 D, p = 0.038). CONCLUSION: Reading in a head bowed position resulted in greater increases in IOP and NITM compared to reading in a head upright posture.

Direct lexical control of eye movements in Chinese reading: Evidence from the co-registration of EEG and eye tracking.

The direct-lexical-control hypothesis stipulates that some aspect of a word's processing determines the duration of the fixation on that word and/or the next. Although the direct lexical control is incorporated into most current models of eye-movement control in reading, the precise implementation varies and the assumptions of the hypothesis may not be feasible given that lexical processing must occur rapidly enough to influence fixation durations. Conclusive empirical evidence supporting this hypothesis is therefore lacking. In this article, we report the results of an eye-tracking experiment using the boundary paradigm in which native speakers of Chinese read sentences in which target words were either high- or low-frequency and preceded by a valid or invalid preview. Eye movements were co-registered with electroencephalography, allowing standard analyses of eye-movement measures, divergence point analyses of fixation-duration distributions, and fixated-related potentials on the target words. These analyses collectively provide strong behavioral and neural evidence of early lexical processing and thus strong support for the direct-lexical-control hypothesis. We discuss the implications of the findings for our understanding of how the hypothesis might be implemented, the neural systems that support skilled reading, and the nature of eye-movement control in the reading of Chinese versus alphabetic scripts.

Mirror invariance in the subsequent acquisition of a script with separate forms for reading and writing.

PURPOSE: Does suppression of mirror-invariance in one script generalize to a subsequently learned script? METHOD: We examined mirror invariance in writing and recognition among native Latin-scriptal children and adults (n = 181) learning the Hebrew print script (for reading), and among a subset (n = 92) also learning the Hebrew cursive script (for writing). Hebrew-Latin biscriptal Israeli adults (n = 17) provided comparison. RESULTS: For the most part, mirror invariance was more evident in Hebrew print than in Latin in both writing and recognition among native Latin-scriptals. The number of previously acquired scripts had no effect. Letters' text-frequency inversely affected written mirror-error frequency. Written reversal errors were less frequent in cursive; orientation recognition was more fluent in print. CONCLUSIONS: Mirror-invariance suppression in one's native script does not generalize to a subsequently acquired script. Factors affecting mirror-invariance suppression in the subsequent script include its form and function and individual letters' text-frequency.

The whole is greater than the sum of its parts: Using cognitive profiles to predict academic achievement.

BACKGROUND: Executive functions (EFs) are thought to work in concert to support academic skill. However, EFs are often examined independently, obscuring their symbiotic contribution. We examined the relationship between students' holistic EF profiles and their academic success. METHODS: We sampled over 1200 7-15 year old students from a diverse school district (16 % White; 32 % low income) in the United States. We used 9 EF assessments to construct cognitive profiles via self-organizing maps. We then related profiles to academic achievement scores from both laboratory-based assessments and state-administered standardized tests of reading and math. RESULTS: Six profiles differed in EF performance, but their differences in academic achievement did not suggest a linear relationship between individual EFs and academic skill. CONCLUSIONS: We show cognitive profiles based on individual strengths and weaknesses in EFs can reveal multiple cognitive paths to the same academic outcome.