Characterization and humanization of VNARs targeting human serum albumin from the whitespotted bamboo shark (Chiloscyllium plagiosum).

The Shark-derived immunoglobulin new antigen receptors (IgNARs) have gained increasing attention for their high solubility, exceptional thermal stability, and intricate sequence variation. In this study, we immunized whitespotted bamboo shark (Chiloscyllium plagiosum) to create phage display library of variable domains of IgNAR (VNARs) for screening against Human Serum Albumin (HSA), a versatile vehicle in circulation due to its long in vivo half-life. We identified two HSA-binding VNAR clones, 2G5 and 2G6, and enhanced their expression in E. coli with the FKPA chaperone. 2G6 exhibited a strong binding affinity of 13 nM with HSA and an EC50 of 1 nM. In vivo study with a murine model further provided initial validation of 2G6's ability to prolong circulation time by binding to HSA. Additionally, we employed computational molecular docking to predict the binding affinities of both 2G6 and its humanized derivative, H2G6, to HSA. Our analysis unveiled that the complementarity-determining regions (CDR1 and CDR3) are pivotal in the antigen recognition process. Therefore, our study has advanced the understanding of the potential applications of VNARs in biomedical research aimed at extending drug half-life, holding promise for future therapeutic and diagnostic progressions.

Leveraging the biotechnological promise of the hagfish variable lymphocyte receptors: tools for aquatic microbial diseases.

The jawless vertebrates (agnathans/cyclostomes) are ancestral animals comprising lampreys and hagfishes as the only extant representatives. They possess an alternative adaptive immune system (AIS) that uses leucine-rich repeats (LRR)-based variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs) instead of the immunoglobulin (Ig)-based antigen receptors of jawed vertebrates (gnathostomes). The different VLR types are expressed on agnathan lymphocytes and functionally resemble gnathostome antigen receptors. In particular, VLRB is functionally similar to the B cell receptor and is expressed and secreted by B-like lymphocytes as VLRB antibodies that bind antigens with high affinity and specificity. The potential repertoire scale of VLR-based antigen receptors is believed to be at least comparable to that of Ig-based systems. VLR proteins inherently possess characteristics that render them excellent candidates for biotechnological development, including tractability to recombinant approaches. In recent years, scientists have explored the biotechnological development and utility of VLRB proteins as alternatives to conventional mammalian antibodies. The VLRB antibody platform represents a non-traditional approach to generating a highly diverse repertoire of unique antibodies. In this review, we first describe some aspects of the biology of the AIS of the jawless vertebrates, which recognizes antigens by means of unique receptors. We then summarize reports on the development of VLRB-based antibodies and their applications, particularly those from the inshore hagfish (Eptatretus burgeri) and their potential uses to address microbial diseases in aquaculture. Hagfish VLRB antibodies (we call Ccombodies) are being developed and improved, while obstacles to the advancement of the VLRB platform are being addressed to utilize VLRBs effectively as tools in immunology. VLRB antibodies for novel antigen targets are expected to emerge to provide new opportunities to tackle various scientific questions. We anticipate a greater interest in the agnathan AIS in general and particularly in the hagfish AIS for greater elucidation of the evolution of adaptive immunity and its applications to address microbial pathogens in farmed aquatic animals and beyond.

EBF1, PAX5, and MYC: regulation on B cell development and association with hematologic neoplasms.

During lymphocyte development, a diverse repertoire of lymphocyte antigen receptors is produced to battle against pathogens, which is the basis of adaptive immunity. The diversity of the lymphocyte antigen receptors arises primarily from recombination-activated gene (RAG) protein-mediated V(D)J rearrangement in early lymphocytes. Furthermore, transcription factors (TFs), such as early B cell factor 1 (EBF1), paired box gene 5 (PAX5), and proto-oncogene myelocytomatosis oncogene (MYC), play critical roles in regulating recombination and maintaining normal B cell development. Therefore, the aberrant expression of these TFs may lead to hematologic neoplasms.

Development of Shark Single Domain Antibodies Specific for Human α-Fetoprotein and the Multimerization Strategy in Serum Detection.

Sensitive detection of cancer biomarkers can contribute to the timely diagnosis and treatment of diseases. In this study, the whitespotted bamboo sharks were immunized with human α-fetoprotein (AFP), and a phage-displayed variable new antigen receptor (VNAR) single domain antibody library was constructed. Then four unique VNARs (VNAR1, VNAR11, VNAR21, and VNAR25) against AFP were isolated from the library by biopanning for the first time. All of the sequences belong to type II of VNAR, and the VNAR11 was much different from the rest of the three sequences. Then VNAR1 and VNAR11 were selected to fuse with the C4-binding protein α chain (C4bpα) sequence and efficiently expressed in the Escherichia coli system. Furthermore, a VNAR-C4bpα-mediated sandwich chemiluminescence immunoassay (VSCLIA) was developed for the detection of AFP in human serum samples. After optimization, the VSCLIA showed a limit of detection of 0.74 ng/mL with good selectivity and accuracy. Moreover, the results of clinical serum samples detected by the VSCLIA were confirmed by an automatic immunoanalyzer in the hospital, indicating its practical application in actual samples. In conclusion, the novel antibody element VNAR exhibits great potential for immunodiagnosis, and this study also provides a new direction and experimental basis for AFP detection.

Targeting Senescent Alveolar Epithelial Cells Using Engineered Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles To Treat Pulmonary Fibrosis.

Type 2 alveolar epithelial cell (AEC2) senescence is crucial to the pathogenesis of pulmonary fibrosis (PF). The nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)-consuming enzyme cluster of differentiation 38 (CD38) is a marker of senescent cells and is highly expressed in AEC2s of patients with PF, thus rendering it a potential treatment target. Umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived extracellular vesicles (MSC-EVs) have emerged as a cell-free treatment with clinical application prospects in antiaging and antifibrosis treatments. Herein, we constructed CD38 antigen receptor membrane-modified MSC-EVs (CD38-ARM-MSC-EVs) by transfecting MSCs with a lentivirus loaded with a CD38 antigen receptor-CD8 transmembrane fragment fusion plasmid to target AEC2s and alleviate PF. Compared with MSC-EVs, the CD38-ARM-MSC-EVs engineered in this study showed a higher expression of the CD38 antigen receptor and antifibrotic miRNAs and targeted senescent AEC2s cells highly expressing CD38 in vitro and in naturally aged mouse models after intraperitoneal administration. CD38-ARM-MSC-EVs effectively restored the NAD+ levels, reversed the epithelial-mesenchymal transition phenotype, and rejuvenated senescent A549 cells in vitro, thereby mitigating multiple age-associated phenotypes and alleviating PF in aged mice. Thus, this study provides a technology to engineer MSC-EVs and support our CD38-ARM-MSC-EVs to be developed as promising agents with high clinical potential against PF.

Locus folding mechanisms determine modes of antigen receptor gene assembly.

The dynamic folding of genomes regulates numerous biological processes, including antigen receptor (AgR) gene assembly. We show that, unlike other AgR loci, homotypic chromatin interactions and bidirectional chromosome looping both contribute to structuring Tcrb for efficient long-range V(D)J recombination. Inactivation of the CTCF binding element (CBE) or promoter at the most 5'Vß segment (Trbv1) impaired loop extrusion originating locally and extending to DßJß CBEs at the opposite end of Tcrb. Promoter or CBE mutation nearly eliminated Trbv1 contacts and decreased RAG endonuclease-mediated Trbv1 recombination. Importantly, Trbv1 rearrangement can proceed independent of substrate orientation, ruling out scanning by DßJß-bound RAG as the sole mechanism of Vß recombination, distinguishing it from Igh. Our data indicate that CBE-dependent generation of loops cooperates with promoter-mediated activation of chromatin to juxtapose Vß and DßJß segments for recombination through diffusion-based synapsis. Thus, the mechanisms that fold a genomic region can influence molecular processes occurring in that space, which may include recombination, repair, and transcriptional programming.

Anchor Clustering for million-scale immune repertoire sequencing data.

BACKGROUND: The clustering of immune repertoire data is challenging due to the computational cost associated with a very large number of pairwise sequence comparisons. To overcome this limitation, we developed Anchor Clustering, an unsupervised clustering method designed to identify similar sequences from millions of antigen receptor gene sequences. First, a Point Packing algorithm is used to identify a set of maximally spaced anchor sequences. Then, the genetic distance of the remaining sequences to all anchor sequences is calculated and transformed into distance vectors. Finally, distance vectors are clustered using unsupervised clustering. This process is repeated iteratively until the resulting clusters are small enough so that pairwise distance comparisons can be performed. RESULTS: Our results demonstrate that Anchor Clustering is faster than existing pairwise comparison clustering methods while providing similar clustering quality. With its flexible, memory-saving strategy, Anchor Clustering is capable of clustering millions of antigen receptor gene sequences in just a few minutes. CONCLUSIONS: This method enables the meta-analysis of immune-repertoire data from different studies and could contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the immune repertoire data space.

Characterization of CD3+/CD20+ canine large-cell lymphoma.

Immunophenotyping of canine large-cell lymphoma (LCL) for B-cell and T-cell surface antigens is commonly performed to better predict the clinical outcome. Expression of surface antigen CD3 is associated with T-cell malignancies; surface antigen CD20 is expressed on B cells. However, a small subset of canine LCLs expresses both CD3 and CD20 (CD3+/CD20+); this form of lymphoma remains poorly defined at the molecular level. In a retrospective study, we aimed to better characterize immunophenotypic properties and antigen receptor clonality of CD3+/CD20+ LCL. We selected formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues from 10 cases of CD3+/CD20+ LCL and breed-matched controls of peripheral large T-cell lymphoma (PTCL) and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL). Using PCR for antigen receptor rearrangement (PARR), we identified monoclonal T-cell receptor gamma (TCRγ) rearrangements in all CD3+/CD20+ cases. Three of 10 cases had monoclonal rearrangements in the immunoglobulin heavy chain (IgH), supportive of cross-lineage rearrangement. There was no significant difference in the frequency of antigen receptor rearrangement between CD3+/CD20+ and PTCL cases. In comparison with DLBCL, CD3+/CD20+ LCL had TCRγ rearrangement more frequently and IgH rearrangement less frequently, respectively. Immunolabeling of the B-cell marker PAX5 occurred less frequently in all CD3+/CD20+ LCL cases compared to the DLBCL controls. Immunolabeling for BCL-2 was robust, regardless of immunophenotype. Nuclear Ki67 positivity was variable in CD3+/CD20+ cases, indicating a heterogeneity in proliferation. Overall, cases of canine CD3+/CD20+ LCL had properties similar to PTCL, suggesting a similar histogenesis of these 2 subsets.

The genetic spectrum of a Chinese series of patients with 46, XY disorders of the sex development.

PURPOSE: The etiology of 46, XY disorders of sex development (46, XY DSD) is complex, and studies have shown that different series of patients with 46, XY DSD has different genetic spectrum. In this study, we aimed to investigate the underlying genetic etiology in a Chinese series of patients with 46, XY DSD by whole exome sequencing (WES). METHODS: Seventy patients with 46, XY DSD were enrolled from the Peking Union Medical College Hospital (Beijing, China). The detailed clinical characteristics were evaluated, and peripheral blood was collected for WES to find the patients' rare variants (RVs) of genes related to 46, XY DSD. The clinical significance of the RVs was annotated according to American College of Medical Genetics and Genomics (ACMG) guidelines. RESULTS: A total of 57 RVs from nine genes were identified in 56 patients with 46, XY DSD, which include 21 novel RVs and 36 recurrent RVs. Based on the American ACMG guidelines, 43 variants were classified as pathogenic(P) or likely pathogenic (LP) variants and 14 variants were defined as variants of uncertain significance (VUS). P or LP variants were identified in 64.3% (45/70) patients of the series. Thirty-nine, 14, and 4 RVs were involved in the process of androgen synthesis and action, testicular determination and developmental process, and syndromic 46, XY DSD, respectively. The top three genes most frequently affected to cause 46, XY DSD were AR, SRD5A2, and NR5A1. Seven patients were found harboring RVs of the 46, XY DSD pathogenic genes identified in recent years, namely DHX37 in four patients, MYRF in two patients, and PPP2R3C in one patient. CONCLUSION: We identified 21 novel RVs of nine genes, which extended the genetic spectrum of 46, XY DSD pathogenic variants. Our study showed that 60% of the patients were caused by AR, SRD5A2 or NR5A1 P/LP variants. Therefore, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification and Sanger sequencing of these three genes could be performed first to identify the pathogeny of the patients. For those patients whose pathogenic variants had not been found, whole-exome sequencing could be helpful in determining the etiology.

Novel Approach for Obtaining Variable Domain of New Antigen Receptor with Different Physicochemical Properties from Japanese Topeshark (Hemitriakis japanica).

Diverse candidate antibodies are needed to successfully identify therapeutic and diagnostic applications. The variable domain of IgNAR (VNAR), a shark single-domain antibody, has attracted attention owing to its favorable physicochemical properties. The phage display method used to screen for optimal VNARs loses sequence diversity because of the bias caused by the differential ease of protein expression in Escherichia coli. Here, we investigated a VNAR selection method that combined panning with various selection pressures and next-generation sequencing (NGS) analyses to obtain additional candidates. Drawing inspiration from the physiological conditions of sharks and the physicochemical properties of VNARs, we examined the effects of NaCl and urea concentrations, low temperature, and preheating at the binding step of panning. VNAR phage libraries generated from Japanese topeshark (Hemitriakis japanica) were enriched under these conditions. We then performed NGS analysis and attempted to select clones that were specifically enriched under each panning condition. The identified VNARs exhibited higher reactivity than those obtained by panning without selection pressure. Additionally, they possess physicochemical properties that reflect their respective selection pressures. These results can greatly enhance our understanding of VNAR properties and offer guidance for the screening of high-quality VNAR clones that are present at low frequencies.

Structural Space of the Duffy Antigen/Receptor for Chemokines' Intrinsically Disordered Ectodomain 1 Explored by Temperature Replica-Exchange Molecular Dynamics Simulations.

Plasmodium vivax malaria affects 14 million people each year. Its invasion requires interactions between the parasitic Duffy-binding protein (PvDBP) and the N-terminal extracellular domain (ECD1) of the host's Duffy antigen/receptor for chemokines (DARC). ECD1 is highly flexible and intrinsically disordered, therefore it can adopt different conformations. We computationally modeled the challenging ECD1 local structure. With T-REMD simulations, we sampled its dynamic behavior and collected its most representative conformations. Our results suggest that most of the DARC ECD1 domain remains in a disordered state during the simulated time. Globular local conformations are found in the analyzed local free-energy minima. These globular conformations share an α-helix spanning residues Ser18 to Ser29 and in many cases they comprise an antiparallel ß-sheet, whose ß-strands are formed around residues Leu10 and Ala49. The formation of a parallel ß-sheet is almost negligible. So far, progress in understanding the mechanisms forming the basis of the P. vivax malaria infection of reticulocytes has been hampered by experimental difficulties, along with a lack of DARC structural information. Our collection of the most probable ECD1 structural conformations will help to advance modeling of the DARC structure and to explore DARC-ECD1 interactions with a range of physiological and pathological ligands.

Unleashing the power of shark variable single domains (VNARs): broadly neutralizing tools for combating SARS-CoV-2.

The pandemic caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) generated a joint global effort to develop vaccines and other treatments that could mitigate the negative effects and the rapid spread of the virus. Single-domain antibodies derived from various sources, including cartilaginous fish, camelids, and humans, have gained attention as promising therapeutic tools against coronavirus disease 2019. Shark-derived variable new antigen receptors (VNARs) have emerged as the smallest naturally occurring antigen-binding molecules. Here, we compile and review recent published studies on VNARs with the capacity to recognize and/or neutralize SARS-CoV-2. We found a close balance between the use of natural immune libraries and synthetic VNAR libraries for the screening against SARS-CoV-2, with phage display being the preferred display technology for the selection of VNARs against this virus. In addition, we discuss potential modifications and engineering strategies employed to improve the neutralization potential of VNARs, such as exploring fusion with the Fc domain of human Immunoglobulin G (IgG) to increase avidity and therapeutic potential. This research highlights the potential of VNARs as powerful molecular tools in the fight against infectious diseases.

Antigen receptor stimulation induces purifying selection against pathogenic mitochondrial tRNA mutations.

Pathogenic mutations in mitochondrial (mt) tRNA genes that compromise oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) exhibit heteroplasmy and cause a range of multisyndromic conditions. Although mitochondrial disease patients are known to suffer from abnormal immune responses, how heteroplasmic mtDNA mutations affect the immune system at the molecular level is largely unknown. Here, in mice carrying pathogenic C5024T in mt-tRNAAla and in patients with mitochondrial encephalomyopathy, lactic acidosis, stroke-like episodes (MELAS) syndrome carrying A3243G in mt-tRNALeu, we found memory T and B cells to have lower pathogenic mtDNA mutation burdens than their antigen-inexperienced naive counterparts, including after vaccination. Pathogenic burden reduction was less pronounced in myeloid compared with lymphoid lineages, despite C5024T compromising macrophage OXPHOS capacity. Rapid dilution of the C5024T mutation in T and B cell cultures could be induced by antigen receptor-triggered proliferation and was accelerated by metabolic stress conditions. Furthermore, we found C5024T to dysregulate CD8+ T cell metabolic remodeling and IFN-γ production after activation. Together, our data illustrate that the generation of memory lymphocytes shapes the mtDNA landscape, wherein pathogenic variants dysregulate the immune response.

Evolution of two distinct variable lymphocyte receptors in lampreys: VLRD and VLRE.

Jawless vertebrates possess an alternative adaptive immune system in which antigens are recognized by variable lymphocyte receptors (VLRs) generated by combinatorial assembly of leucine-rich repeat (LRR) cassettes. Three types of receptors, VLRA, VLRB, and VLRC, have been previously identified. VLRA- and VLRC-expressing cells are T cell-like, whereas VLRB-expressing cells are B cell-like. Here, we report two types of VLRs in lampreys, VLRD and VLRE, phylogenetically related to VLRA and VLRC. The germline VLRD and VLRE genes are flanked by 39 LRR cassettes used in the assembly of mature VLRD and VLRE, with cassettes from chromosomes containing the VLRA and VLRC genes also contributing to VLRD and VLRE assemblies. VLRD and VLRE transcription is highest in the triple-negative (VLRA-/VLRB-/VLRC-) population of lymphocytes, albeit also detectable in VLRA+ and VLRC+ populations. Tissue distribution studies suggest that lamprey VLRD+ and VLRE+ lymphocytes comprise T-like sublineages of cells.

NF-κB subunits direct kinetically distinct transcriptional cascades in antigen receptor-activated B cells.

The nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) family of transcription factors orchestrates signal-induced gene expression in diverse cell types. Cellular responses to NF-κB activation are regulated at the level of cell and signal specificity, as well as differential use of family members (subunit specificity). Here we used time-dependent multi-omics to investigate the selective functions of Rel and RelA, two closely related NF-κB proteins, in primary B lymphocytes activated via the B cell receptor. Despite large numbers of shared binding sites genome wide, Rel and RelA directed kinetically distinct cascades of gene expression in activated B cells. Single-cell RNA sequencing revealed marked heterogeneity of Rel- and RelA-specific responses, and sequential binding of these factors was not a major mechanism of protracted transcription. Moreover, nuclear co-expression of Rel and RelA led to functional antagonism between the factors. By rigorously identifying the target genes of each NF-κB subunit, these studies provide insights into exclusive functions of Rel and RelA in immunity and cancer.

Phage Display of Bovine Ultralong CDRH3.

Phage display is an in vitro technique used in the discovery of monoclonal antibodies that has been used successfully in the discovery of both camelid VHH and shark variable new antigen receptor domains (VNAR). Bovines also contain a unique "ultralong CDRH3" with a conserved structural motif, comprising a knob domain and ß-stalk. When removed from the antibody scaffold, either the entire ultralong CDRH3 or the knob domain alone, is typically capable of binding an antigen, to produce antibody fragments that are smaller than both VHH and VNAR. By extracting immune material from bovine animals and specifically amplifying knob domain DNA sequences by PCR, knob domain sequences can be cloned into a phagemid vector producing knob domain phage libraries. Target-specific knob domains can be enriched by panning the libraries against an antigen of interest. Phage display of knob domains exploits the link between phage genotype and phenotype and could prove to be a high throughput method to discover target-specific knob domains, helping to explore the pharmacological properties of this unique antibody fragment.

Non-Antigenic Modulation of Antigen Receptor (TCR) Cß-FG Loop Modulates Signalling: Implications of External Factors Influencing T-Cell Responses.

T-cell recognition of antigens is complex, leading to biochemical and cellular events that impart both specific and targeted immune responses. The end result is an array of cytokines that facilitate the direction and intensity of the immune reaction-such as T-cell proliferation, differentiation, macrophage activation, and B-cell isotype switching-all of which may be necessary and appropriate to eliminate the antigen and induce adaptive immunity. Using in silico docking to identify small molecules that putatively bind to the T-cell Cß-FG loop, we have shown in vitro using an antigen presentation assay that T-cell signalling is altered. The idea of modulating T-cell signalling independently of antigens by directly targeting the FG loop is novel and warrants further study.

DNAM-1 chimeric receptor-engineered NK cells: a new frontier for CAR-NK cell-based immunotherapy.

DNAM-1 is a major NK cell activating receptor and, together with NKG2D and NCRs, by binding specific ligands, strongly contributes to mediating the killing of tumor or virus-infected cells. DNAM-1 specifically recognizes PVR and Nectin-2 ligands that are expressed on some virus-infected cells and on a broad spectrum of tumor cells of both hematological and solid malignancies. So far, while NK cells engineered for different antigen chimeric receptors (CARs) or chimeric NKG2D receptor have been extensively tested in preclinical and clinical studies, the use of DNAM-1 chimeric receptor-engineered NK cells has been proposed only in our recent proof-of-concept study and deserves further development. The aim of this perspective study is to describe the rationale for using this novel tool as a new anti-cancer immunotherapy.

Non-specific cytotoxic cell receptor protein-1 (NCCRP-1) is involved in anti-parasite innate CD8+ T cell-mediated cytotoxicity in ginbuna crucian carp.

CD8+ cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) are a main cellular component of adaptive immunity. Our previous research has shown that CD8+ cells demonstrate spontaneous cytotoxic activity against the parasite Ichthyophthirius multifiliis in ginbuna crucian carp, suggesting that CD8+ cells play an important role in innate immunity. Herein, we investigated the molecules and cellular signal pathways involved in the cytotoxic response of ginbuna crucian carp. We considered non-specific cytotoxic receptor protein-1 (NCCRP-1) as candidate molecule for parasite recognition. We detected NCCRP-1 protein in CD8+ cells and the thymus as well as in other cells and tissues. CD8+ cells expressed mRNA for NCCRP-1, Jak2, and T cell-related molecules. In addition, treatment with a peptide containing the presumed antigen recognition site of ginbuna NCCRP-1 significantly inhibited the cytotoxic activity of CD8+ cells against the parasites. The cytotoxic activity of CD8+ cells was significantly inhibited by treatment with the JAK1/2 inhibitor baricitinib. These results suggest that teleost CTLs recognize I. multifiliis through NCCRP-1 and are activated by JAK/STAT signaling.

Functionalization of polymeric nanoparticles with targeting VNAR ligands using vinyl sulfone conjugation.

Actively targeted drug loaded nanoparticles represent an exciting new form of therapeutics for cancer and other diseases. These formulations are complex and in order to realize their ultimate potential, optimization of their preparation is required. In this current study, we have examined the conjugation of a model targeting ligand, conjugated in a site-specific manner using a vinyl sulfone coupling approach. A disulfide-functionalized poly(L-lactide)-b-poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylate)-stat-(bis(2-methacryloyl)oxyethyl disulfide) (PLA-b-P(OEGMA-stat-DSDMA)) diblock copolymer was synthesized by simultaneous ring opening polymerization (ROP) and reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization. Subsequently, the disulfide bonds of the polymer were reduced to thiols and divinyl sulfone was attached to the polymer using thiol-ene chemistry to produce the vinyl sulfone (VS)-functionalized PLA-b-P(OEGMA-stat-VSTEMA) amphiphilic block copolymer. Single emulsion - solvent evaporation was employed using a blend of this polymer with poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) to produce VS-functionalized polymeric nanoparticles. The ability of these novel nanoparticles to attach ligands was then exemplified using a single domain variable new antigen receptor (VNAR) with a free carboxyl terminal cysteine residue. The resulting VNAR-functionalized nanoparticles were found to maintain specific affinity to their cognate antigen (DLL4) for at least 72 h at 4 °C. The simplicity of the degradable amphiphilic block copolymer synthesis and the efficiency of VNAR conjugation to the VS-functionalized nanoparticles show the potential of this platform for therapeutic development.