Systemic inflammation, growth factors, and linear growth in the setting of infection and malnutrition.

OBJECTIVES: Deficits in weight gain and linear growth are seen frequently among children in areas where malnutrition and recurrent infections are common. Although both inflammation and malnutrition can result in growth hormone (GH) resistance, the interrelationships of infection, inflammation, and growth deficits in developing areas remain unclear. The aim of this study was to evaluate relationships between low levels of systemic inflammation, growth factors, and anthropometry in a case-control cohort of underweight and normal weight children in northern Brazil. METHODS: We evaluated data from 147 children ages 6 to 24 mo evaluated in the MAL-ED (Interactions of Malnutrition and Enteric Disease) case-control study following recruitment from a nutrition clinic for impoverished families in Fortaleza, Brazil. We used nonparametric tests and linear regression to evaluate relationships between current symptoms of infections (assessed by questionnaire), systemic inflammation (assessed by high-sensitivity C-reactive protein [hsCRP]), the GH insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) axis, and measures of anthropometry. All models were adjusted for age and sex. RESULTS: Children with recent symptoms of diarrhea, cough, and fever (compared with those without symptoms) had higher hsCRP levels; those with recent diarrhea and fever also had lower IGF-1 and higher GH levels. Stool myeloperoxidase was positively associated with serum hsCRP. hsCRP was in turn positively associated with GH and negatively associated with IGF-1 and IGF-binding protein-3 (IGFBP-3), suggesting a state of GH resistance. After adjustment for hsCRP, IGF-1 and IGFBP-3 were positively and GH was negatively associated with Z scores for height and weight. CONCLUSIONS: Infection and inflammation were linked to evidence of GH resistance, whereas levels of GH, IGF-1, and IGFBP-3 were associated with growth indices independent of hsCRP. These data implicate complex interrelationships between infection, nutritional status, GH axis, and linear growth in children from a developing area.

Addressing the double burden of malnutrition with a common agenda.

Addressing malnutrition in all its forms represents an integrated agenda addressing the root causes of malnutrition at all stages of the life course. The issue is not about choosing between addressing undernutrition in the poor versus overnutrition in the affluent. We must recognize that the interventions required to address stunting are different from those needed to reduce underweight and wasting. In most developing regions, there is a coexistence between underweight and stunting in infants and children, while in the adult population it may be overweight and stunting. Malnutrition in all its forms refers to both underweight and overweight. Underweight is defined by a low weight-for-age, a child is underweight because of wasting (low weight-for-height) or stunting (low length-for-age). Stunting refers to low height-for-age independent of their weight-for-age, some stunted children may have excess weight for their stature length. Overweight is excess weight-for-length/-height or high-BMI-for-age. The prevention of nutrition-related chronic diseases is a life-long process that starts in fetal life and continues throughout infancy and later stages of life. It requires promoting healthy diets and active living at each stage. The agenda requires that we tackle malnutrition in all its forms.

Assessment of the reliability and consistency of the "malnutrition inflammation score" (MIS) in Mexican adults with chronic kidney disease for diagnosis of protein-energy wasting syndrome (PEW).

BACKGROUND: The protein-energy wasting syndrome (PEW) is a condition of malnutrition, inflammation, anorexia and wasting of body reserves resulting from inflammatory and non-inflammatory conditions in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD).One way of assessing PEW, extensively described in the literature, is using the Malnutrition Inflammation Score (MIS). OBJECTIVE: To assess the reliability and consistency of MIS for diagnosis of PEW in Mexican adults with CKD on hemodialysis (HD). METHODS: Study of diagnostic tests. A sample of 45 adults with CKD on HD were analyzed during the period June-July 2014.The instrument was applied on 2 occasions; the test-retest reliability was calculated using the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC); the internal consistency of the questionnaire was analyzed using Cronbach's αcoefficient. A weighted Kappa test was used to estimate the validity of the instrument; the result was subsequently compared with the Bilbrey nutritional index (BNI). RESULTS: The reliability of the questionnaires, evaluated in the patient sample, was ICC=0.829.The agreement between MIS observations was considered adequate, k= 0.585 (p <0.001); when comparing it with BNI, a value of k = 0.114 was obtained (p <0.001).In order to estimate the tendency, a correlation test was performed. The r² correlation coefficient was 0.488 (P <0.001). CONCLUSION: MIS has adequate reliability and validity for diagnosing PEW in the population with chronic kidney disease on HD.

Antecedentes: El síndrome de desgaste proteínico-energético (DPE) se refiere a una condición de desnutrición, inflamación, anorexia, y emaciación de reservas corporales resultante de las condiciones inflamatorias y no inflamatorias que prevalecen en pacientes con enfermedad renal crónica (ERC).Una forma ampliamente descrita en la literatura para evaluar el DPE es el Malnutrition Inflamation Score (MIS). Objetivo: Valorar la fiabilidad y consistencia del MIS en adultos mexicanos con ERC en Hemodiálisis (HD) para Diagnóstico de DPE. Métodos: Estudio de pruebas diagnósticas. Se analizó una muestra de 45 adultos con ERC en HD, Durante el periodo Junio-Julio 2014. El instrumento se aplicó en 2 ocasiones, la fiabilidad test-retest se calculó mediante el Coeficiente de correlación Intraclase (CCI), la consistencia interna del cuestionario se analizó mediante el Coeficiente de Cronbach. Se calculó una prueba de Kappa ponderada para estimar la validez del instrumento, posteriormente se comparó con el índice nutricional de Bilbrey (IB). Resultados: La fiabilidad entre cuestionarios valorada en la muestra de pacientes fue de CCI = 0.829. La concordancia entre observaciones MIS es considerada como adecuada = 0.585 (p.

Nutrition and sickle cell disease.

A common observation in sickle cell disease is growth retardation, in particular, wasting. Wasting is associated with increased hospitalization and possibly poorer clinical outcomes. Therefore understanding the mechanism of wasting is crucial and reducing the degree of wasting by improving the nutritional status, holds the potential for modifying the course of the disease.

An analysis of two indigenous reproductive health illnesses in a Nahua community in Veracruz, Mexico.

BACKGROUND: This article describes the local concepts indigenous Nahua women hold regarding their reproduction. Specifically it provides a description of two indigenous illnesses--isihuayo and necaxantle, it discusses their etiology, symptoms, and treatments, and it analyzes them within the local ethnomedical framework and sociopolitical context. A perception of female vulnerability is shown to be an underlying shaper of women's experiences of these illnesses. METHODS: This research took place in a small Nahua village in Mexico. Qualitative data on local perceptions of these illnesses were collected by a combination of participant observation and interviews. Ethnobotanical data was obtained through interviews, and medicinal plants were collected in home gardens, fields, stream banks, and forested areas. The total study population consisted of traditional birth attendants (N = 5), clinicians (N = 8), and laywomen (N = 48). RESULTS: Results showed that 20% of the village women had suffered from one or both of these illnesses. The article includes a detailed description of the etiology, symptoms, and treatments of these illnesses. Data shows that they were caused by mechanical, physical, and social factors related to a woman's weakness and/or lack of support. Traditional birth attendants often treated women's illnesses. Five medicinal plants were salient in the treatment of these illnesses: Ocimum basilicum L., Mentzelia aspera L., Pedilanthus tithymaloides (L.) Poit., and Piper umbellatum L. were used for isihuayo, while Solanum wendlandii Hook f. was used for necaxantle. CONCLUSIONS: The research on these two ethnomedical conditions is a useful case study to understanding how indigenous women experience reproductive health. Reproductive health is not simply about clinically-based medicine but is also about how biomedicine intersects with the local bodily concepts. By describing and analyzing indigenous women's ill health, one can focus upon the combination of causes--which extend beyond the physical body and into the larger structure that the women exist in.

Is a body mass index of 23 kg/m² a reliable marker of protein-energy wasting in hemodialysis patients?

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the body composition and inflammatory status in patients on hemodialysis (HD) according to the cutoff of 23 kg/m² for the body mass index (BMI). METHODS: Forty-seven patients (30 men, 11 diabetics, 53.8 ± 12.2 y of age, 58.2 ± 50.9 mo on HD) were studied. Anthropometric data and handgrip strength were evaluated. C-reactive protein, tumor necrosis factor-α, leptin, and interleukin-6 were measured. Mortality was assessed after 24 mo of follow-up. RESULTS: Nineteen patients (40.4%) presented BMI values lower than 23 kg/m² and leptin levels, midarm muscle area, and free-fat mass were significantly lower in these patients. The prevalence of functional muscle loss according to handgrip strength was not different between the BMI groups. The sum of skinfold thicknesses, the percentage of body fat, fat mass, the fat mass/free-fat mass ratio, and waist circumference were significantly lower in patients with a BMI lower than 23 kg/m², but the mean values did not indicate energy wasting. Patients with a BMI higher than 23 kg/m² presented a higher prevalence of inflammation and higher waist circumference and body fat values. The adiposity parameters were correlated with C-reactive protein and leptin. A Cox multivariate regression analysis demonstrated that C-reactive protein, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukin-6 predict cardiovascular mortality. CONCLUSION: Patients on HD with a BMI lower than 23 kg/m² did not present signs of energy wasting, whereas those with a BMI higher than 23 kg/m² had more inflammation, probably because of a greater adiposity. Thus, the BMI value of 23 kg/m² does not seem to be a reliable marker of protein-energy wasting in patients on HD.

Mecanismos de perda muscular da sarcopenia / Mechanisms of muscle wasting in sarcopenia

Cerca de 66 por cento dos pacientes com artrite reumatoide (AR) apresentam significativa perda de massa celular, denominada caquexia reumatoide, predominantemente de músculo esquelético (sarcopenia reumatoide). A sarcopenia é caracterizada por perda de massa muscular associada a prejuízos de função. Pacientes com AR apresentam uma redução significativa na força muscular, causada pela perda de proteínas musculares, alterando sua funcionalidade. As diversas condições que levam à perda de massa muscular envolvem distintas cascatas de sinalização intracelular, que podem levar: (i) à morte celular programada (apoptose); (ii) ao aumento da degradação proteica, por meio de autofagia, de proteases dependentes de cálcio (calpaínas e caspases) e do sistema proteossomo; e (iii) à diminuição da ativação das células-satélite responsáveis pela regeneração muscular. Este artigo tem como objetivo revisar esses mecanismos gerais de sarcopenia e seu envolvimento na AR. O melhor conhecimento desses mecanismos pode levar ao desenvolvimento de terapias inovadoras para essa debilitante complicação.

Approximately 66 percent of the patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) have significant loss of cell mass (rheumatoid cachexia), mainly of skeletal muscle (rheumatoid sarcopenia). Sarcopenia is defined as muscle wasting associated with functional impairment. Patients with RA possess significant reduction in muscle strength, caused by muscle protein wasting, and loss of functionality. Various conditions leading to muscle wasting involve different pathways of intracellular signaling that trigger: (i) programmed cell death (apoptosis); (ii) increased protein degradation through autophagy, calcium-dependent proteases (calpains and caspases), and proteasome system; (iii) decreased satellite cell activation, responsible for muscle regeneration. This article aimed at reviewing these general mechanisms of sarcopenia and their involvement in RA. Greater knowledge of these mechanisms may lead to the development of innovative therapies to this important comorbidity.

Mechanisms of muscle wasting in sarcopenia.

Approximately 66% of the patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) have significant loss of cell mass (rheumatoid cachexia), mainly of skeletal muscle (rheumatoid sarcopenia). Sarcopenia is defined as muscle wasting associated with functional impairment. Patients with RA possess significant reduction in muscle strength, caused by muscle protein wasting, and loss of functionality. Various conditions leading to muscle wasting involve different pathways of intracellular signaling that trigger: (i) programmed cell death (apoptosis); (ii) increased protein degradation through autophagy, calcium-dependent proteases (calpains and caspases), and proteasome system; (iii) decreased satellite cell activation, responsible for muscle regeneration. This article aimed at reviewing these general mechanisms of sarcopenia and their involvement in RA. Greater knowledge of these mechanisms may lead to the development of innovative therapies to this important comorbidity.

Growth in late infancy among HIV-exposed children in urban Haiti is associated with participation in a clinic-based infant feeding support intervention.

The integration of nutrition support for infants of HIV-infected mothers is a recognized need; however, the evidence for effective programmatic solutions is weak. The objective of our study was to implement and evaluate a new infant feeding support intervention for HIV-exposed, uninfected, non-breast-fed infants 6-12 mo of age attending the Groupe Haïtien d'Etude du Sarcome de Kaposi et des Infections Opportunistes (GHESKIO) pediatric clinic in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. The 24-wk intervention included a lipid-based nutrient supplement, education, promotion of existing clinical services, and social support. We compared growth outcomes among intervention participants (n = 73) at start (wk 0) and end (wk 24) of intervention to a historical control group of HIV-exposed infants seen at the GHESKIO in the year prior to the intervention who would have met the intervention entrance criteria (n = 294). The intervention and historical control groups did not differ significantly at age 6 mo (wk 0). At age 12 mo (wk 24), the intervention group had a lower prevalence of underweight and stunting than the historical control group (weight-for-age Z-score < -2 SD: 6.8 vs. 20.8%, P = 0.007; length-for-age Z-score < -2 SD: 9.6 vs. 21.2%, P = 0.029). Wasting tended to be lower in the intervention group than the historical control (weight-for-length Z-score < -2 SD: 2.9 vs. 8.9%, P = 0.11). Implementation of the intervention was associated with reduced risk of growth faltering in HIV-exposed uninfected children from 6 to 12 mo of age. This is a promising intervention model that can be adapted and scaled-up to other HIV care contexts.

Assessment of methods to identify protein-energy wasting in patients on hemodialysis.

INTRODUCTION: The method capable of best identifying protein-energy wasting (PEW) in hemodialysis (HD) patients is controversial. Thus, we assessed the nutritional status of HD patients by use of different methods and verified which one identified the highest number of patients with PEW. METHODS: The study assessed the nutritional status of 15 HD patients (age: 52.7 ± 10.1 years; males: 33.3%) by use of anthropometric measurements, subjective global assessment (SGA), serum albumin, and dietary intake (24-hour food recall). Body fat was assessed by use of anthropometry. The International Society of Renal Nutrition and Metabolism (ISRNM) criteria were used to diagnose PEW. RESULTS: The body mass index (24.2 ± 4.4 kg/m²) and the percentage of standard value for mid-arm muscle circumference were within the normal limits (102.6 ± 13%). Nevertheless, the percentage of standard value for triceps skinfold was below the normal limits (females, 75.3 ± 40.4%; and males, 73.5 ± 20.6%), although a high body fat percentage was observed (females, 34.5 ± 7.3%; males, 23.6 ± 4.2%). When assessing the nutritional status by use of SGA, most patients (80%, n = 12) were malnourished, and SGA was the method that identified the highest number of patients with PEW. By using the ISRNM criteria, PEW was diagnosed in only two patients. CONCLUSION: All patients were diagnosed with PEW by use of one of the methods studied. The SGA was the method that, in isolation, could detect the greatest number of patients with PEW.

Avaliação de métodos para identificar desnutrição energético-protéica de pacientes em hemodiálise / Assessment of methods to identify protein-energy wasting in patients on hemodialysis

INTRODUÇÃO: O método capaz de melhor identificar desnutrição energético-protéica (DEP) em pacientes em hemodiálise (HD) ainda se mantém em debate. Logo, avaliamos o estado nutricional de pacientes em HD por diferentes métodos e verificamos qual deles identificava o maior número de pacientes com DEP. MÉTODOS: Quinze pacientes em HD (52,7 ± 10 anos; 33,3 por cento Masculino). O estado nutricional foi avaliado por medidas antropométricas, pela avaliação subjetiva global (ASG), por albumina plasmática e pelo consumo alimentar (recordatório de 24 horas). A gordura corporal foi avaliada por antropometria. O critério de diagnóstico de DEP preconizado pela International Society of Renal Nutrition and Metabolism (ISRNM) foi empregado. RESULTADOS: Observou-se que o índice de massa corporal esteve dentro da normalidade (24,2 ± 4,4 kg/m²). Ao avaliar a condição nutricional pela adequação da circunferência muscular do braço CMB) e da prega cutânea de tríceps (PCT) notou-se que a adequação da CMB esteve dentro dos parâmetros de normalidade (102,6 ± 13 por cento), ao passo que a adequação da PCT esteve abaixo da normalidade (Feminino: 75,3 ± 40,4 por cento; Masculino: 73,5 ± 20,6 por cento). Contudo, o percentual de gordura corporal esteve elevado (Feminino: 34,5 ± 7,3 por cento; Masculino: 23,6 ± 4,2 por cento). Com relação à ASG, a maioria dos pacientes (n = 12) apresentou algum grau de desnutrição e este constituiu o método que identificou o maior número de pacientes com DEP. Ao empregar os critérios da ISRNM, notou-se que apenas dois pacientes apresentaram DEP. CONCLUSÃO: Todos os pacientes avaliados encontravam-se com DEP por algum dos métodos utilizados. A ASG foi o método que, isoladamente, conseguiu detectar o maior número de pacientes com DEP.

INTRODUCTION: The method capable of best identifying protein-energy wasting (PEW) in hemodialysis (HD) patients is controversial. Thus, we assessed the nutritional status of HD patients by use of different methods and verified which one identified the highest number of patients with PEW. METHODS: The study assessed the nutritional status of 15 HD patients (age: 52.7 ± 10.1 years; males: 33.3 percent) by use of anthropometric measurements, subjective global assessment (SGA), serum albumin, and dietary intake (24-hour food recall). Body fat was assessed by use of anthropometry. The International Society of Renal Nutrition and Metabolism (ISRNM) criteria were used to diagnose PEW. RESULTS: The body mass index (24.2 ± 4.4 kg/m²) and the percentage of standard value for mid-arm muscle circumference were within the normal limits (102.6 ± 13 percent). Nevertheless, the percentage of standard value for triceps skinfold was below the normal limits (females, 75.3 ± 40.4 percent; and males, 73.5 ± 20.6 percent), although a high body fat percentage was observed (females, 34.5 ± 7.3 percent; males, 23.6 ± 4.2 percent). When assessing the nutritional status by use of SGA, most patients (80 percent, n = 12) were malnourished, and SGA was the method that identified the highest number of patients with PEW. By using the ISRNM criteria, PEW was diagnosed in only two patients. CONCLUSION: All patients were diagnosed with PEW by use of one of the methods studied. The SGA was the method that, in isolation, could detect the greatest number of patients with PEW.

Adiponectin in children on peritoneal dialysis: relationship to insulin resistance and nutritional status.

AIM: To study whether adiponectin and resistin serum concentrations in children on peritoneal dialysis (PD) were related to insulin resistance (IR) and anthropometric parameters of nutritional status, 11 PD patients, 9 chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients and 10 healthy children were studied. METHODS: Glucose and insulin were measured during the oral glucose tolerance test. Levels of adiponectin and resistin were evaluated by ELISA, insulin by RIA. RESULTS: In CKD patients, higher homeostasis model assessment-insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), fasting and 2-hour serum insulin levels were shown compared to control and to PD patients. Body mass index (BMI) and body fat content were severely decreased while serum adiponectin levels were significantly higher in PD patients relative to controls. No differences among groups were shown in resistin levels. On regression modeling, inverse independent associations were observed between adiponectin with percentile BMI, weight and height z-score, and with body fat content. In contrast, no relationship was found between adiponectin and IR parameters. In multiple regression analysis, adiponectin was negatively correlated with BMI. A negative association of adiponectin and resistin with glomerular filtration rate was also shown. CONCLUSION: A role for adiponectin in terms of its association with clinical wasting parameters in PD pediatric patients might be suggested.

Malnutrition, muscle wasting and cachexia in chronic heart failure: the nutritional approach.

Malnutrition, muscle wasting and cachexia are often present in chronic heart failure (CHF). However, malnutrition in CHF patients is not always as severe as muscle wasting. Data in the literature show that 24% of CHF patients have malnutrition (albumin < 3.5 mg/dl) but 68% have muscle atrophy. This apparent discrepancy can be explained by considering the metabolic role of the striate muscle. In fact, the striate muscle maintains the body metabolic performance by continuous exchanges of fuels (amino acids) with the liver. This happens in case of malnutrition or starvation. In such situations, glucose is produced by gluconeogenesis when amino acids are metabolized in the liver. Malnutrition, muscle wasting and the frequent progression through cachexia can be reduced by specific therapy such as cytokine and/or catabolic hormone antagonists. This is because cytokines and catabolic hormones, with consequent insulin resistance, cause muscle wasting. An alternative and/or complementary therapy may be exogenous amino acid supplementation. In fact, amino acids: a) are rapidly absorbed regardless of pancreatic activity, b) reduce insulin resistance, c) induce the hepatic synthesis of anabolic molecules such as growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor, and d) modulate the catabolic hormonal-mediated effects on adipocytes. Research on the best suitable qualitative and quantitative amino acid composition for an alternative and/or complementary therapy is still being studied in different research centers.

Wasting and death in cattle associated with chronic grazing of Brachiaria decumbens.

Progressive wasting was observed in 4/1000 steers grazing Brachiaria decumbens pastures. Yellow liver and whitish hard nodules in the mesenteric and hepatic lymph nodes were observed at necropsy. At histologic examination multifocal accumulation of foamy macrophages were in the livers, spleens, lmph nodes, and intestinal submucosa. It is suggested that the wasting syndrome was due to the intestinal granulomatous lesions of B decumbens.

Effect of supplementary feeding on the prevention of mild-to-moderate wasting in conditions of endemic malnutrition in Guatemala.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the effect of supplementary feeding on the prevention of wasting in preschool children in a rural area of Guatemala with a high prevalence of malnutrition. METHODS: Children aged 6-48 months, with a weight-for-length exceeding 90% of that of the median NCHS/WHO/CDC reference population, received either Atole, a drink with a high protein and moderate energy content, or Fresco, a drink with no protein and a low energy content. Children consuming amounts of Atole equivalent to more than 10% of the age-adjusted recommended dietary intake for energy were termed "supplemented." A comparable group of children consuming Fresco was termed "non-supplemented". The energy intake in the supplemented group was higher than that in the non-supplemented group by 16-18% of the recommended daily intake. The corresponding difference in protein intake was 45-80% of the recommended daily intake. The children were followed up at intervals of three or six months in order to evaluate their weight-for-length development. The difference between supplemented and non-supplemented children in the proportions maintaining their weight-for-length category at the end of the study intervals represented the prevention of wasting attributable to supplementary feeding (attributable prevention). Households were used as units of analysis in order to avoid cluster effects. FINDINGS: The attributable prevention in children aged 6-24 months with weight-for-length between 90% and 99.9% of the reference population at entry ranged from 0.21 to 0.26 and was statistically significant after three and six months of supplementation. However, it was not significant in children at or above 100% weight-for-length or in older children. Children above 100% weight-for-length did not become overweight as a result of supplementation. CONCLUSION: Supplementary feeding of children aged 6-24 months in populations with inadequate dietary intakes can prevent the onset of wasting in a large proportion of children.

Growth deficiency and malnutrition in Bloom syndrome.

OBJECTIVES: To describe the growth and nutritional status of a pediatric population with Bloom syndrome. STUDY DESIGN: Longitudinal growth data from 148 patients in the Bloom's Syndrome Registry (85 male, 63 female) were compiled retrospectively from physician and parent records to develop graphed statistics of weight-for-age, height-for-age, fronto-occipital circumference-for-age, and weight-for-height for both sexes with comparisons with the normal population. RESULTS: Term birth measurements confirm that the growth deficiency of Bloom syndrome has prenatal onset. Stunting persists throughout life, and an adolescent growth spurt is not apparent from the smoothed data. Growth continues by at least 1 cm/yr until age 21 years for both sexes. More than half of children with Bloom syndrome are significantly wasted until age 8 years, which is not related to early death or underlying malignancy. The mean body mass index for adults with Bloom syndrome after age 25 years is low normal (n = 22, mean = 20.2 kg/m2). CONCLUSIONS: Children with Bloom syndrome have significant growth retardation and wasting.

Growth status in children with cystic fibrosis based on the National Cystic Fibrosis Patient Registry data: evaluation of various criteria used to identify malnutrition.

OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study were to determine growth status and to identify malnutrition with various anthropometric indicators in children with cystic fibrosis (CF) based on cross-sectional analysis of the 1993 National CF Patient Registry data. METHODS: Heights and weights of 13,116 children with CF were evaluated with percentile, percent of reference median, Z-score, and percent ideal weight-for-height based on National Center for Health Statistics/Centers for Disease Control growth references. Malnutrition was defined by four criteria: (1) height-for-age <5th percentile ("stunting") or weight-for-age <5th percentile ("wasting") (2) height-for-age <90% of reference median or weight-for-age <80% of reference median, (3) height-for-age <5th percentile or percent ideal weight-for-height <85%, and (4) height-for-age <90% of reference median or weight-for-height <85% of reference median. RESULTS: Mean and median height- and weight-for-age were found to be at the 30th and 20th percentiles in children with CF. Malnutrition (height- or weight-for-age <5th percentile) was particularly pronounced in infants (47%) and adolescents (34%) and patients with newly diagnosed CF (44%). A significant sex difference (p < 0.01) in the occurrence of stunting (height-for-age <5th percentile) was observed during adolescence: boys 11 to 14 years of age showed lower occurrence of stunting (19%) compared with girls (29%), whereas the opposite trend was observed at 15 to 18 years (34% in male patients vs 28% in female patients). CONCLUSION: Twenty percent of all children in the 1993 National CF Patient Registry were <5th percentile for height- or weight-for-age. A significant discrepancy was found when different criteria were used to distinguish "stunting" versus "wasting" in malnourished children with CF.