A WASp-VASP complex regulates actin polymerization at the plasma membrane.

Proteins of the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome and Ena/VASP families both play essential functions in the regulation of actin dynamics at the cell leading edge. However, possibilities of functional interplay between members of these two families have not been addressed. Here we show that, in hemopoietic cells, recruitment of the C-terminal VCA (Verprolin homology, Cofilin homology, Acidic) domain of WASp at the plasma membrane by a ligand technique using rapamycin as an intermediate is not sufficient to elicit efficient Arp2/3 complex-mediated actin polymerization. Other domains of WASp, in particular the proline-rich domain, are required for the formation of actin-rich structures. An in vitro analysis demonstrates that the proline-rich domain of WASp binds VASP with an affinity of approximately 10(6) M(-1). In addition, WASp and VASP both accumulate in actin-rich phagocytic cups. Finally, in a reconstituted motility medium, VASP enhances actin-based propulsion of WASp-coated beads in a fashion reminiscent of its effect on Listeria movement. We propose that VASP and WASp cooperation is essential in stimulating actin assembly and membrane protrusion at the leading edge.

Activation of Arp2/3 complex by Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome protein is linked to enhanced binding of ATP to Arp2.

In response to signaling, the Arp2/3 complex (actin-related proteins 2 and 3 complex) is activated by binding the C-terminal (WA) domain of proteins of the Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome family to promote the formation of a branched actin filament array, responsible for cell protrusion. The Arp2/3 complex exists in different structural/functional states: the inactive Arp2/3, the activated WA.Arp2/3 complex, the ternary G-actin.WA.Arp2/3 complex, which branches the filaments. This work addresses the role of ATP binding in Arp2/3 function. Using photo-cross-linking, hydrodynamic, and fluorescence techniques, we show that in the inactive Arp2/3 complex only one rapidly exchangeable ATP is tightly bound to Arp3 with an affinity of 10(8) m(-1). Upon activation of the Arp2/3 complex by WA, ATP binds to Arp2 with high affinity (10(7) m(-1)), implying that a large structural change of Arp2 is linked to Arp2/3 activation. ATP is rapidly exchangeable on Arp2 and Arp3 in WA.Arp2/3 and G-actin.WA.Arp2/3 complexes. ATP is not hydrolyzed in inactive Arp2/3, in WA.Arp2/3, nor in G-actin.WA.Arp2/3. Arp2 has a greater specificity than Arp3 for ATP versus ATP analogs. Using functional assays of actin polymerization in branched filaments, we show that binding of ATP to Arp2 is required for filament branching.

Listeria protein ActA mimics WASp family proteins: it activates filament barbed end branching by Arp2/3 complex.

Actin-based propulsion of the bacteria Listeria and Shigella mimics the forward movement of the leading edge of motile cells. While Shigella harnesses the eukaryotic protein N-WASp to stimulate actin polymerization and filament branching through Arp2/3 complex, the Listeria surface protein ActA directly activates Arp2/3 complex by an unknown mechanism. Here we show that the N-terminal domain of ActA binds one actin monomer, in a profilin-like fashion, and Arp2/3 complex and mimics the C-terminal domain of WASp family proteins in catalyzing filament barbed end branching by Arp2/3 complex. No evidence is found for side branching of filaments by ActA-activated Arp2/3 complex. Mutations in the conserved acidic (41)DEWEEE(46) and basic (146)KKRRK(150) regions of ActA affect Arp2/3 binding but not G-actin binding. The motility properties of wild-type and mutated Listeria strains in living cells and in the medium reconstituted from pure proteins confirm the conclusions of biochemical experiments. Filament branching is followed by rapid debranching. Debranching is 3-4-fold faster when Arp2/3 is activated by ActA than by the C-terminal domain of N-WASp. VASP is required for efficient propulsion of ActA-coated beads in the reconstituted motility medium, but it does not affect the rates of barbed end branching/debranching by ActA-activated Arp2/3 nor the capping of filaments. VASP therefore affects another still unidentified biochemical reaction that plays an important role in actin-based movement.

Mechanism of actin-based motility.

Spatially controlled polymerization of actin is at the origin of cell motility and is responsible for the formation of cellular protrusions like lamellipodia. The pathogens Listeria monocytogenes and Shigella flexneri, which undergo actin-based propulsion, are acknowledged models of the leading edge of lamellipodia. Actin-based motility of the bacteria or of functionalized microspheres can be reconstituted in vitro from only five pure proteins. Movement results from the regulated site-directed treadmilling of actin filaments, consistent with observations of actin dynamics in living motile cells and with the biochemical properties of the components of the synthetic motility medium.

Ciboulot regulates actin assembly during Drosophila brain metamorphosis.

A dynamic actin cytoskeleton is essential for the remodeling of cell shape during development, but the specific roles of many actin partners remain unclear. Here we characterize a novel actin binding protein, Ciboulot (Cib), which plays a major role in axonal growth during Drosophila brain metamorphosis. Loss of Cib function leads to axonal growth defects in the central brain, while overexpression of the gene during development leads to overgrown projections. The Cib protein displays strong sequence similarity to beta-thymosins but has biochemical properties like profilin: the Cib-actin complex participates in actin filament assembly exclusively at the barbed end, and Cib enhances actin-based motility in vitro. Genetic experiments show that Cib and the Drosophila profilin protein Chickadee (Chic) cooperate in central brain metamorphosis.

Stathmin slows down guanosine diphosphate dissociation from tubulin in a phosphorylation-controlled fashion.

Stathmin is an important protein that interacts with tubulin and regulates microtubule dynamics in a phosphorylation-controlled fashion. Here we show that the dissociation of guanosine 5'-diphosphate (GDP) from beta-tubulin is slowed 20-fold in the (tubulin)(2)-stathmin ternary complex (T(2)S). The kinetics of GDP or guanosine 5'-triphosphate (GTP) dissociation from tubulin have been monitored by the change in tryptophan fluorescence of tubulin upon exchanging 2-amino-6-mercapto-9-beta-ribofuranosylpurine 5'-diphosphate (S6-GDP) for tubulin-bound guanine nucleotide. At molar ratios of stathmin to tubulin lower than 0.5, biphasic kinetics were observed, indicating that the dynamics of the complex is extremely slow, consistent with its high stability. The method was used to characterize the effects of phosphorylation of stathmin on its interaction with tubulin. The serine-to-glutamate substitution of all four phosphorylatable serines of stathmin (4E-stathmin) weakens the stability of the T(2)S complex by about 2 orders of magnitude. The phosphorylation of serines 16 and 63 in stathmin has a more severe effect and weakens the stability of T(2)S 10(4)-fold. The rate of GDP dissociation is lowered only 7-fold and 4-fold in the complexes of tubulin with 4E-stathmin and diphosphostathmin, respectively. Sedimentation velocity studies support the conclusions of nucleotide exchange data and show that the T(2)S complexes formed between tubulin and 4E-stathmin or diphosphostathmin are less compact than the highly stable T(2)S complex. The correlation between the effect of phosphorylation of stathmin on the stability of T(2)S complex measured in vitro and on the function of stathmin in vivo is discussed.

The Arp2/3 complex branches filament barbed ends: functional antagonism with capping proteins.

The Arp2/3 complex is an essential regulator of actin polymerization in response to signalling and generates a dendritic array of filaments in lamellipodia. Here we show that the activated Arp2/3 complex interacts with the barbed ends of filaments to initiate barbed-end branching. Barbed-end branching by Arp2/3 quantitatively accounts for polymerization kinetics and for the length correlation of the branches of filaments observed by electron microscopy. Filament branching is visualized at the surface of Listeria in a reconstituted motility assay. The functional antagonism between the Arp2/3 complex and capping proteins is essential in the maintenance of the steady state of actin assembly and actin-based motility.

Measurement of the elasticity of the actin tail of Listeria monocytogenes.

We report biophysical experiments performed on the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes, a model system to study actin-based motility. Using optical tweezers and electrophoresis experiments, we find that the bacterium is firmly attached to its tail, and we demonstrate that the tail responds as an elastic gel when deformed. We have measured its elastic modulus at a value of 10(3)-10(4) Pa, which is 10 times higher than the rigidity of the eukaryotic cytoplasm. These results demonstrate that the bacterium and its tail form a very robust system, consistent with the steadyness of the motion observed in vivo. We propose an elastic model for the propulsion mechanism which takes into account the connection and thus the interaction between the actin filaments. It provides a generic description of the various aspects of actin-tail based movements.

Diltiazem in acute myocardial infarction treated with thrombolytic agents: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Incomplete Infarction Trial of European Research Collaborators Evaluating Prognosis post-Thrombolysis (INTERCEPT)

BACKGROUND: Diltiazem reduces non-fatal reinfarction and refractory ischaemia after non-Q-wave myocardial infarction, an acute coronary syndrome similar to the incomplete infarction that occurs after successful reperfusion. We postulated that this agent would reduce cardiac events in patients after acute myocardial infarction treated initially with thrombolytic agents-a clinical application previously unexplored with heart-rate-lowering calcium antagonists. METHODS: A prospective, randomised, double-blind, sequential trial was done in 874 patients with acute myocardial infarction, but without congestive heart failure, who first received thrombolytic agents. Patients received either 300 mg oral diltiazem once daily, or placebo, initiated within 36-96 h of infarct onset, and given for up to 6 months. The trial primary endpoint was the cumulative first event rate of cardiac death, non-fatal reinfarction, or refractory ischaemia. Additional prespecified endpoints included several composites of non-fatal cardiac events (non-fatal reinfarction combined with refractory ischaemia, all recurrent ischaemia, or the need for myocardial revascularisation). The diagnosis of ischaemia, whether refractory or recurrent, and the need for myocardial revascularisation, was always based on objective electrocardiographical evidence of ischaemia, either at rest or on exertion. RESULTS: For the trial primary endpoint, 131 events occurred in the 444 placebo patients and 97 events in the 430 diltiazem patients (hazard ratio 0.79; 95% CI, 0.61-1.02; p=0.07). For non-fatal cardiac events, diltiazem treatment was associated with a relative decrease (0.76; 0.58-1.00) in the combined event rate of non-fatal reinfarction and refractory ischaemia. There was a similar decrease in the composite non-fatal endpoints of non-fatal reinfarction combined with all recurrent ischaemia (0.80; 0.64-1.00) and non-fatal reinfarction combined with the need for myocardial revascularisation (0.67; 0.46-0.96). The need for myocardial revascularisation alone was significantly reduced by 42% (0.61; 0.39-0.96). No major safety issues were encountered. CONCLUSIONS: Diltiazem did not reduce the cumulative occurrence of cardiac death, non-fatal reinfarction, or refractory ischaemia during a 6-month follow-up, but did reduce all composite endpoints of non-fatal cardiac events, especially the need for myocardial revascularisation.

Monomeric gamma -tubulin nucleates microtubules.

gamma-Tubulin is required for nucleation and polarized organization of microtubules in vivo. The mechanism of microtubule nucleation by gamma-tubulin and the role of associated proteins is not understood. Here we show that in vitro translated monomeric gamma-tubulin nucleates microtubules by lowering the size of the nucleus from seven to three tubulin subunits. In capping the minus end with high affinity (10(10) m(-1)) and a binding stoichiometry of one molecule of gamma-tubulin/microtubule, gamma-tubulin establishes the critical concentration of the plus end in the medium and prevents minus end growth. gamma-Tubulin interacts strongly with beta-tubulin. A structural model accounts for these results.

GRB2 links signaling to actin assembly by enhancing interaction of neural Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (N-WASp) with actin-related protein (ARP2/3) complex.

Proteins of the Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome protein (WASp) family connect signaling pathways to the actin polymerization-driven cell motility. The ubiquitous homolog of WASp, N-WASp, is a multidomain protein that interacts with the Arp2/3 complex and G-actin via its C-terminal WA domain to stimulate actin polymerization. The activity of N-WASp is enhanced by the binding of effectors like Cdc42-guanosine 5'-3-O-(thio)triphosphate, phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate, or the Shigella IcsA protein. Here we show that the SH3-SH2-SH3 adaptor Grb2 is another activator of N-WASp that stimulates actin polymerization by increasing the amount of N-WASp. Arp2/3 complex. The concentration dependence of N-WASp activity, sedimentation velocity and cross-linking experiments together suggest that N-WASp is subject to self-association, and Grb2 enhances N-WASp activity by binding preferentially to its active monomeric form. Use of peptide inhibitors, mutated Grb2, and isolated SH3 domains demonstrate that the effect of Grb2 is mediated by the interaction of its C-terminal SH3 domain with the proline-rich region of N-WASp. Cdc42 and Grb2 bind simultaneously to N-WASp and enhance actin polymerization synergistically. Grb2 shortens the delay preceding the onset of Escherichia coli (IcsA) actin-based reconstituted movement. These results suggest that Grb2 may activate Arp2/3 complex-mediated actin polymerization downstream from the receptor tyrosine kinase signaling pathway.

Reconstitution of actin-based motility of Listeria and Shigella using pure proteins.

Actin polymerization is essential for cell locomotion and is thought to generate the force responsible for cellular protrusions. The Arp2/3 complex is required to stimulate actin assembly at the leading edge in response to signalling. The bacteria Listeria and Shigella bypass the signalling pathway and harness the Arp2/3 complex to induce actin assembly and to propel themselves in living cells. However, the Arp2/3 complex alone is insufficient to promote movement. Here we have used pure components of the actin cytoskeleton to reconstitute sustained movement in Listeria and Shigella in vitro. Actin-based propulsion is driven by the free energy released by ATP hydrolysis linked to actin polymerization, and does not require myosin. In addition to actin and activated Arp2/3 complex, actin depolymerizing factor (ADF, or cofilin) and capping protein are also required for motility as they maintain a high steady-state level of G-actin, which controls the rate of unidirectional growth of actin filaments at the surface of the bacterium. The movement is more effective when profilin, alpha-actinin and VASP (for Listeria) are also included. These results have implications for our understanding of the mechanism of actin-based motility in cells.

Signalling to actin: the Cdc42-N-WASP-Arp2/3 connection.

The molecular link between the signalling pathway regulating the formation of filopodia and the initiation of local actin polymerization has been elucidated: N-WASP, a close homologue of WASP, which is the product of the gene responsible for the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, mediates a direct connection between the small G-protein Cdc42 and the Arp2/3 complex.

Activation of the CDC42 effector N-WASP by the Shigella flexneri IcsA protein promotes actin nucleation by Arp2/3 complex and bacterial actin-based motility.

To propel itself in infected cells, the pathogen Shigella flexneri subverts the Cdc42-controlled machinery responsible for actin assembly during filopodia formation. Using a combination of bacterial motility assays in platelet extracts with Escherichia coli expressing the Shigella IcsA protein and in vitro analysis of reconstituted systems from purified proteins, we show here that the bacterial protein IcsA binds N-WASP and activates it in a Cdc42-like fashion. Dramatic stimulation of actin assembly is linked to the formation of a ternary IcsA-N-WASP-Arp2/3 complex, which nucleates actin polymerization. The Arp2/3 complex is essential in initiation of actin assembly and Shigella movement, as previously observed for Listeria monocytogenes. Activation of N-WASP by IcsA unmasks two domains acting together in insertional actin polymerization. The isolated COOH-terminal domain of N-WASP containing a verprolin-homology region, a cofilin-homology sequence, and an acidic terminal segment (VCA) interacts with G-actin in a unique profilin-like functional fashion. Hence, when N-WASP is activated, its COOH-terminal domain feeds barbed end growth of filaments and lowers the critical concentration at the bacterial surface. On the other hand, the NH(2)-terminal domain of N-WASP interacts with F-actin, mediating the attachment of the actin tail to the bacterium surface. VASP is not involved in Shigella movement, and the function of profilin does not require its binding to proline-rich regions.

Control of actin filament length and turnover by actin depolymerizing factor (ADF/cofilin) in the presence of capping proteins and ARP2/3 complex.

The effect of Arabidopsis thaliana ADF1 and human ADF on the number of filaments in F-actin solutions has been examined using a seeded polymerization assay. ADF did not sever filaments in a catalytic fashion, but decreased the steady-state length distribution of actin filaments in correlation with its effect on actin dynamics. The increase in filament number was modest as compared with the large increase in filament turnover. ADF did not decrease the length of filaments shorter than 1 micrometer. ADF promoted the rapid turnover of gelsolin-capped filaments in a manner dependent on the number of pointed ends. To explain these results, we propose that, as a consequence of the cooperative binding of ADF to F-actin, two populations of energetically different filaments coexist in solution pending a flux of subunits from one to the other. The ADF-decorated filaments depolymerize rapidly from their pointed ends, while undecorated filaments polymerize. ADF also promotes rapid turnover of gelsolin-capped filaments in the presence of the pointed end capper Arp2/3 complex. It is shown that the Arp2/3 complex steadily generates new barbed ends in solutions of gelsolin-capped filaments, which represents an important aspect of its function in actin-based motility.

Rho family GTPases control entry of Shigella flexneri into epithelial cells but not intracellular motility.

Shigella flexneri, an invasive bacterial pathogen, promotes formation of two cytoskeletal structures: the entry focus that mediates bacterial uptake into epithelial cells and the actin-comet tail that enables the bacteria to spread intracellularly. During the entry step, secretion of bacterial invasins causes a massive burst of subcortical actin polymerization leading the formation of localised membrane projections. Fusion of these membrane ruffles leads to bacterial internalization. Inside the cytoplasm, polar expression of the IcsA protein on the bacterial surface allows polymerization of actin filaments and their organization into an actin-comet tail leading to bacterial spread. The Rho family of small GTPases plays an essential role in the organization and regulation of cellular cytoskeletal structures (i.e. filopodia, lamellipodia, adherence plaques and intercellular junctions). We show here that induction of Shigella entry foci is controlled by the Cdc42, Rac and Rho GTPases, but not by RhoG. In contrast, actin-driven intracellular motility of Shigella does not require Rho GTPases. Therefore, Shigella appears to manipulate the epithelial cell cytoskeleton both by Rho GTPase-dependent and -independent processes.

Role of proteins of the Ena/VASP family in actin-based motility of Listeria monocytogenes.

Intracellular propulsion of Listeria monocytogenes is the best understood form of motility dependent on actin polymerization. We have used in vitro motility assays of Listeria in platelet and brain extracts to elucidate the function of the focal adhesion proteins of the Ena (Drosophila Enabled)/VASP (vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein) family in actin-based motility. Immunodepletion of VASP from platelet extracts and of Evl (Ena/VASP-like protein) from brain extracts of Mena knockout (-/-) mice combined with add-back of recombinant (bacterial or eukaryotic) VASP and Evl show that VASP, Mena, and Evl play interchangeable roles and are required to transform actin polymerization into active movement and propulsive force. The EVH1 (Ena/VASP homology 1) domain of VASP is in slow association-dissociation equilibrium high-affinity binding to the zyxin-homologous, proline-rich region of ActA. VASP also interacts with F-actin via its COOH-terminal EVH2 domain. Hence VASP/ Ena/Evl link the bacterium to the actin tail, which is required for movement. The affinity of VASP for F-actin is controlled by phosphorylation of serine 157 by cAMP-dependent protein kinase. Phospho-VASP binds with high affinity (0.5 x 10(8) M-1); dephospho-VASP binds 40-fold less tightly. We propose a molecular ratchet model for insertional polymerization of actin, within which frequent attachment-detachment of VASP to F-actin allows its sliding along the growing filament.

Filament assembly from profilin-actin.

Profilin plays a major role in the assembly of actin filament at the barbed ends. The thermodynamic and kinetic parameters for barbed end assembly from profilin-actin have been measured turbidimetrically. Filament growth from profilin-actin requires MgATP to be bound to actin. No assembly is observed from profilin-CaATP-actin. The rate constant for association of profilin-actin to barbed ends is 30% lower than that of actin, and the critical concentration for F-actin assembly from profilin-actin units is 0.3 microM under physiological ionic conditions. Barbed ends grow from profilin-actin with an ADP-Pi cap. Profilin does not cap the barbed ends and is not detectably incorporated into filaments. The EDC-cross-linked profilin-actin complex (PAcov) both copolymerizes with F-actin and undergoes spontaneous self-assembly, following a nucleation-growth process characterized by a critical concentration of 0.2 microM under physiological conditions. The PAcov polymer is a helical filament that displays the same diffraction pattern as F-actin, with layer lines at 6 and 36 nm. The PAcov filaments bound phalloidin with the same kinetics as F-actin, bound myosin subfragment-1, and supported actin-activated ATPase of myosin subfragment-1, but they did not translocate in vitro along myosin-coated glass surfaces. These results are discussed in light of the current models of actin structure.