Investigation of by-product formation during the irradiation of drinking water with a medium pressure lamp.

The goal of this study was to determine the effect of UV irradiation with a polychromatic spectrum on natural organic matter. Several irradiation tests were carried out with or without cut-off of wavelengths lower than 240 nm on water samples coming from different drinking water plants. DOC, BDOC, SEC analyses, chlorine demand, nitrate and nitrite concentration measurements were made. Changes were noticed as regarding SEC and chlorine demand analyses. Indeed a consistent trend of breaking-up NOM molecules into smaller fragments was observed. Moreover, the chlorine demand increased with the dose when the cut-off filter was not applied, whereas a maximum value resulted when the cut-off filter was applied. Most of these results were obtained at high UV doses (40000 J x m(-2)), suggesting that UV irradiation would not have a noticeable effect on the water samples tested at doses usually used for drinking water treatment.

Detection of Escherichia coli in biofilms from pipe samples and coupons in drinking water distribution networks.

Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) was used for direct detection of Escherichia coli on pipe surfaces and coupons in drinking water distribution networks. Old cast iron main pipes were removed from water distribution networks in France, England, Portugal, and Latvia, and E. coli was analyzed in the biofilm. In addition, 44 flat coupons made of cast iron, polyvinyl chloride, or stainless steel were placed into and continuously exposed to water on 15 locations of 6 distribution networks in France and Latvia and examined after 1 to 6 months exposure to the drinking water. In order to increase the signal intensity, a peptide nucleic acid (PNA) 15-mer probe was used in the FISH screening for the presence or absence of E. coli on the surface of pipes and coupons, thus reducing occasional problems of autofluorescence and low fluorescence of the labeled bacteria. For comparison, cells were removed from the surfaces and examined with culture-based or enzymatic (detection of beta-d-glucuronidase) methods. An additional verification was made by using PCR. Culture method indicated presence of E. coli in one of five pipes, whereas all pipes were positive with the FISH methods. E. coli was detected in 56% of the coupons using PNA FISH, but no E. coli was detected using culture or enzymatic methods. PCR analyses confirmed the presence of E. coli in samples that were negative according to culture-based and enzymatic methods. The viability of E. coli cells in the samples was demonstrated by the cell elongation after resuscitation in low-nutrient medium supplemented with pipemidic acid, suggesting that the cells were present in an active but nonculturable state, unable to grow on agar media. E. coli contributed to ca. 0.001 to 0.1% of the total bacterial number in the samples. The presence and number of E. coli did not correlate with any of physical and/or chemical characteristic of the drinking water (e.g., temperature, chlorine, or biodegradable organic matter concentration). We show here that E. coli is present in the biofilms of drinking water networks in Europe. Some of the cells are metabolically active but are often not detected due to limitations of traditionally used culture-based methods, indicating that biofilm should be considered as a reservoir that must be investigated further in order to evaluate the risk for human health.

Coliforms and other microbial indicators occurrence in water and biofilm in full-scale distribution systems.

Biofilm and microbial water quality were studied in four middle size full-scale distribution systems (DS) in France serving 5,000-30,000 inhabitants (maximum residence time 23-160h) through three sampling campaigns over 1 year. Three of these DSs were chosen because of a quite high occurrence of bacterial indicators (i.e. total coliforms), the last DS was considered as a reference. Biofilm was studied on cast iron coupons incubated for more than 1 month in devices continuously fed with water from the DS in conditions imitating those met in DS. The devices were located at different points (4-6) along each DS. The abundance of bacteria in biofilm was estimated by heterotrophic plate counts (HPC) after detachment of the biofilm from the support by sonication. Microbiological water quality was estimated in parallel; analysis of total coliforms, E. coli, enterococci and anaerobic sulphide-reducing bacteria spores (ASRB spores) was carried out in biofilm and water. Over the period of the study, 171 water samples and 57 biofilm samples were collected. Over these 171 waters, 19 (11%) were positive for at least one of the measured indicators while two biofilm samples were positive (3.5%). Significant differences were observed in the levels of contamination between the DSs. High residence time in the DS, low disinfectant residual and high temperature increased the risk of indicator occurrence in the water phase. Due to the low number of biofilm samples positive for bacterial indicators, the data collected in the present study did not allow observation of a direct association between biofilm and water contaminations, even if the occurrence of indicators in water appeared on DSs with the highest density of biofilm (HPC).

Use of hydrogen peroxide in scrubbing towers for odor removal in wastewater treatment plants.

The aim of this work was to replace sodium hypochlorite (NaCIO) with hydrogen peroxide (H202) in chemical scrubbing towers, in order to avoid the formation of chlorinated species, harmful for human health. Some previous studies have already shown the ability of H2O2 to treat the hydrogen sulfide (H2S) pollution. However, an important decomposition of the oxidant was observed in the scrubbing solution (carbonates, transition metal and high pH are responsible for this decomposition) leading to high reactant consumption. Consequently, this study first focused on research into a compound able to reduce the hydrogen peroxide degradation. Experiments were conducted on a pilot unit (3,000 m3 h(-1)) in a wastewater treatment plant. The sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) proved to be a good scrubbing solution stabilizer. A very good removal of hydrogen sulfide (up to 98%) was also obtained. Finally, the study resulted in the determination of the best operating conditions to achieve both an efficient and economical process.

Kinetics of oxidation of odorous sulfur compounds in aqueous alkaline solution with H2O2.

Sulfur species oxidation is a crucial issue wastewater treatment. The production of sulfur compounds like H2S,CH3SH, C2H5SH, disulfides and dimethyle sulfide generates odorous nuisances for the neighborhood. The oxidation of these species by H2O2 in alkaline solution has been investigated. The results showed that thiols CH3SH and C2H5SH react with H202 only in their dissociated form RS- with rate constants respectively k = 8.81 +/- 0.48 M-1s-1 and 8.37 +/- 0.63 M-1.s-1. Mercaptans oxidation produces 100 % of dimethyldisulfide or diethyldisulfide. The oxidation of disulfides shows a difference of reactivity between H2O2 and HO2- towards sulfur species. Increasing the pH accelerates significantly the reactions in the case of CH3SSCH3. The oxidation rate can be described as: r = k[RSSR][H2O2][RSSR][H2O2] + k[RSSR][HO2-] [RSSR][HO2-] with k[RSSR][H2O2] = 1.2 x 10(-4) +/- 0.2 x 10(-4) M-1s-1 and k[RSSR][HO2-] = 3.4 x 10(-4) +/- 0.6 x 10(-4) M-1.s-1 for CH3SSCH3. Dimethyl sulfide presents a reactivity different from disulfides. The oxidation rate can also be described as: r = k[CH3SCH3][H2O21][CH3SCH3][H2O2] + k[CH3SCH3][HO-] [CH3SCH3][HO2-], however, oxidation rate decreases with pH increase. k[CH3SCH3][H2O2] = 12.8 x 10(-3) +/- 0.96 x 10(-3) M-1.s-1 and k[CH3SCH3][HO2-] = 4 x 10(-3) +/- 0.3 x 10(-3) M-1.s-1.