IGF1 does not overcome sexual dimorphism of body and muscle size in Mstn-/- mice.

Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF1) is crucial for regulating post-natal growth and, along with myostatin (MSTN), regulates muscle size. Here, we sought to clarify the roles of these two genes in regulating sexually dimorphic growth of body and muscle mass. In the first study, we established that Igf1 mRNA was increased to a greater extent and Igf1 receptor mRNA increased earlier in male, than in female, gastrocnemius muscles during the rapid phase of growth (from 2 to 6 weeks) were unchanged, thereafter, to 32 weeks of age in WT mice (P < 0.001). In the second study, we sought to determine if supplemental IGF1 could overcome the sexual dimorphism of muscle and body mass, when myostatin is absent. We crossed myostatin null (Mstn-/-) mice with mice over-expressing Igf1 in skeletal muscle (Igf1+) to generate six genotypes; control (Mstn+/+), Mstn+/-, Mstn-/-, Mstn+/+:Igf1+, Mstn+/-:Igf1+ and Mstn-/-:Igf1+ (n = 8 per genotype and sex). In both sexes, body mass at 12 weeks was increased by at least 1.6-fold and muscle mass by at least 3-fold in Mstn-/-:Igf1+ compared with Mstn+/+ mice (P < 0.001). The abundance of AKT was increased in muscles of mice transgenic for Mstn, while phosphorylation of AKTS473 was increased in both male and female mice transgenic for Igf1+. The ratio of phosphorylated to total AKT was 1.9-fold greater in male mice (P < 0.001). Thus, despite increased growth of skeletal muscle and body size when myostatin was absent and IGF1 was in excess, sexual dimorphism persisted, an effect consistent with greater IGF1-induced activation of AKT in skeletal muscles of males.

Translational signalling, atrogenic and myogenic gene expression during unloading and reloading of skeletal muscle in myostatin-deficient mice.

Skeletal muscles of myostatin null (Mstn(-/-)) mice are more susceptible to atrophy during hind limb suspension (HS) than are muscles of wild-type mice. Here we sought to elucidate the mechanism for this susceptibility and to determine if Mstn(-/-) mice can regain muscle mass after HS. Male Mstn(-/-) and wild-type mice were subjected to 0, 2 or 7 days of HS or 7 days of HS followed by 1, 3 or 7 days of reloading (n = 6 per group). Mstn(-/-) mice lost more mass from muscles expressing the fast type IIb myofibres during HS and muscle mass was recovered in both genotypes after reloading for 7 days. Concentrations of MAFbx and MuRF1 mRNA, crucial ligases regulating the ubiquitin-proteasome system, but not MUSA1, a BMP-regulated ubiquitin ligase, were increased more in muscles of Mstn(-/-) mice, compared with wild-type mice, during HS and concentrations decreased in both genotypes during reloading. Similarly, concentrations of LC3b, Gabarapl1 and Atg4b, key effectors of the autophagy-lysosomal system, were increased further in muscles of Mstn(-/-) mice, compared with wild-type mice, during HS and decreased in both genotypes during reloading. There was a greater abundance of 4E-BP1 and more bound to eIF4E in muscles of Mstn(-/-) compared with wild-type mice (P<0.001). The ratio of phosphorylated to total eIF2α increased during HS and decreased during reloading, while the opposite pattern was observed for rpS6. Concentrations of myogenic regulatory factors (MyoD, Myf5 and myogenin) mRNA were increased during HS in muscles of Mstn(-/-) mice compared with controls (P<0.001). We attribute the susceptibility of skeletal muscles of Mstn(-/-) mice to atrophy during HS to an up- and downregulation, respectively, of the mechanisms regulating atrophy of myofibres and translation of mRNA. These processes are reversed during reloading to aid a faster rate of recovery of muscle mass in Mstn(-/-) mice.

Identification and expression of a novel transcript of the growth and differentiation factor-11 gene.

The growth and differentiation factor-11 (GDF-11) gene is thought to code for a single protein that plays a crucial role in regulating the development of multiple tissues. In this study, we aimed to investigate if the GDF-11 gene has another transcript and, if so, to characterise this transcript and determine its tissue-specific and developmental expression. We have identified a novel transcript of GDF-11 in mouse muscle, which contains the 3' region of intron 1, exon 2, exon 3 and 3'UTR, and has two transcription initiation sites and a single termination site. We named the novel transcript GDF-11ΔEx1 because it does not contain exon 1 of canonical GDF-11. The GDF-11ΔEx1 transcript was expressed in the skeletal muscles, heart, brain and kidney, but was undetectable in the liver and gut. The concentration of the GDF-11ΔEx1 transcript was increased in gastrocnemius muscles from three to 6 weeks of age, a period of accelerated muscle growth, steadily declined thereafter and was higher in male than female mice (P < 0.001 for age and sex). GDF-11ΔEx1 cDNA was predicted to code for a putative N-terminal-truncated propeptide and the canonical ligand for GDF-11. However, propeptide-specific antibodies could not identify proteins of the expected size in skeletal muscle. Interestingly, in silico analysis of the GDF-11ΔEx1 RNA predicted a secondary structure with the potential to coordinate multiple protein interactions as a molecular scaffold. Therefore, we postulate that GDF-11ΔEx1 may act as a long non-coding RNA to regulate the transcription of canonical GDF-11 and/or other genes in skeletal muscle and other tissues.

Discovery of a mammalian splice variant of myostatin that stimulates myogenesis.

Myostatin plays a fundamental role in regulating the size of skeletal muscles. To date, only a single myostatin gene and no splice variants have been identified in mammals. Here we describe the splicing of a cryptic intron that removes the coding sequence for the receptor binding moiety of sheep myostatin. The deduced polypeptide sequence of the myostatin splice variant (MSV) contains a 256 amino acid N-terminal domain, which is common to myostatin, and a unique C-terminus of 65 amino acids. Western immunoblotting demonstrated that MSV mRNA is translated into protein, which is present in skeletal muscles. To determine the biological role of MSV, we developed an MSV over-expressing C2C12 myoblast line and showed that it proliferated faster than that of the control line in association with an increased abundance of the CDK2/Cyclin E complex in the nucleus. Recombinant protein made for the novel C-terminus of MSV also stimulated myoblast proliferation and bound to myostatin with high affinity as determined by surface plasmon resonance assay. Therefore, we postulated that MSV functions as a binding protein and antagonist of myostatin. Consistent with our postulate, myostatin protein was co-immunoprecipitated from skeletal muscle extracts with an MSV-specific antibody. MSV over-expression in C2C12 myoblasts blocked myostatin-induced Smad2/3-dependent signaling, thereby confirming that MSV antagonizes the canonical myostatin pathway. Furthermore, MSV over-expression increased the abundance of MyoD, Myogenin and MRF4 proteins (P<0.05), which indicates that MSV stimulates myogenesis through the induction of myogenic regulatory factors. To help elucidate a possible role in vivo, we observed that MSV protein was more abundant during early post-natal muscle development, while myostatin remained unchanged, which suggests that MSV may promote the growth of skeletal muscles. We conclude that MSV represents a unique example of intra-genic regulation in which a splice variant directly antagonizes the biological activity of the canonical gene product.

The decrease in mature myostatin protein in male skeletal muscle is developmentally regulated by growth hormone.

Myostatin inhibits myogenesis and there is reduced abundance of the mature protein in skeletal muscles of adult male compared with female mice. This reduction probably occurs after translation, which suggests that it is a regulated mechanism to reduce the availability of myostatin in males. Reduced myostatin may, thereby, contribute to the development of sexually dimorphic growth of skeletal muscle. Our first objective was to determine if the decrease in mature myostatin protein occurs before the linear growth phase to aid growth, or afterwards to maintain the mass of adult muscle. Mice were killed from 2 to 32 weeks and the gastrocnemius muscle was excised. Myostatin mRNA increased from 2 to 32 weeks and was higher in males than females (P < 0.001). In contrast, mature protein decreased in males after 6 weeks (P < 0.001). Our second objective was to determine if growth hormone (GH) induces the decrease in mature myostatin protein. GH increased myostatin mRNA and decreased the abundance of mature protein in hypophysectomised mice (P < 0.05). Our final objective was to determine if the decrease in mature protein occurs in skeletal muscles of male Stat5b(-/-) mice (Stat5b mediates the actions of GH). As expected, mature myostatin protein was not reduced in Stat5b(-/-) males compared with females. However, myostatin mRNA remained higher in males than females irrespective of genotype. These data suggest that: (1) the decrease in mature myostatin protein is developmentally regulated, (2) GH acting via Stat5b regulates the abundance of mature myostatin and (3) GH acts via a non-Stat5b pathway to regulate myostatin mRNA.

Effect of botulinum toxin A-induced paralysis and exercise training on mechanosensing and signalling gene expression in juvenile rat gastrocnemius muscle.

Intramuscular injections of the paralytic botulinum neurotoxin A (Btx) and physical exercise are used in the treatment of chronic spasticity in children with cerebral palsy. We tested whether Btx-induced paralysis and/or exercise training would have differential effects on the expression of mechanosensing and signalling genes implicated in the adaptive remodelling of skeletal muscle. Juvenile (29-day-old) male rats were injected with Btx or saline (NoBtx) into the right gastrocnemius and housed in standard cages (NoEx) or with running wheels (Ex), for 3 weeks (n = 6 per group). The mRNA expression of nine sarcomere-associated genes in the medial gastrocnemius was then determined by quantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. The Btx-injected muscles weighed 50% less than NoBtx muscles, but Ex had no effect on the wet mass of Btx or NoBtx muscles. Atrogenic MuRF1, sarcomeric Titin and myogenic MyoD were upregulated (2-fold) with the elimination of contractile activity in Btx muscle. Expression of CARP, Ankrd2 and MLP was increased with mechanical stimuli associated with Btx (5- to 10-fold) or Ex (2- to 4-fold). Expression of CARP and Ankrd2 increased synergistically in Btx-Ex muscle (> or = 20-fold), indicating that these genes may be sensitive to passive stretch of the sarcomeric I-band region of titin to which their proteins bind. Tcap, Myopalladin and Atrogin1 were not, or were no longer responsive to the altered mechanical stimuli after 3 weeks of Btx or Ex. The expression of Ankrd2, CARP and MLP may thus be enhanced by passive stretch within the Btx-paralysed and/or exercising gastrocnemius and contribute to adaptations, other than muscle mass, in juvenile rats.