The Effect of an Obesity Prevention Intervention Among Specific Subpopulations: A Heterogeneity of Treatment Effect Analysis of the Greenlight Trial.

Background: Understanding how different populations respond to a childhood obesity intervention could help optimize personalized treatment strategies, especially with the goal to reduce disparities in obesity. Methods: We conducted a secondary analysis of the Greenlight Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial, a health communication focused pediatric obesity prevention trial, to evaluate for heterogeneity of treatment effect (HTE) by child biological sex, caregiver BMI, caregiver reported race and ethnicity, primary language, and health literacy. To examine HTE on BMI z-score from 2 to 24 months of age, we fit linear mixed effects models. Results: We analyzed 802 caregiver-child pairs, of which 52% of children were female, 58% of households reported annual family income of <$20,000, and 83% did not have a college degree. We observed evidence to suggest HTE by primary language (p = 0.047 for Spanish vs. English) and the combination of primary language and health literacy (p = 0.01). There was insufficient evidence to suggest that the Greenlight intervention effect differed by biological sex, caregiver BMI, or by race/ethnicity. Conclusions: This HTE analysis found that the Greenlight obesity prevention intervention had a more beneficial effect on child BMI z-score over 2 years for children of caregivers with limited health literacy and for caregivers for whom Spanish was the primary language.

The Injury Prevention Program to Reduce Early Childhood Injuries: A Cluster Randomized Trial.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The American Academy of Pediatrics designed The Injury Prevention Program (TIPP) in 1983 to help pediatricians prevent unintentional injuries, but TIPP's effectiveness has never been formally evaluated. We sought to evaluate the impact of TIPP on reported injuries in the first 2 years of life. METHODS: We conducted a stratified, cluster-randomized trial at 4 academic medical centers: 2 centers trained their pediatric residents and implemented TIPP screening and counseling materials at all well-child checks (WCCs) for ages 2 to 24 months, and 2 centers implemented obesity prevention. At each WCC, parents reported the number of child injuries since the previous WCC. Proportional odds logistic regression analyses with generalized estimating equation examined the extent to which the number of injuries reported were reduced at TIPP intervention sites compared with control sites, adjusting for baseline child, parent, and household factors. RESULTS: A total of 781 parent-infant dyads (349 TIPP; 432 control) were enrolled and had sufficient data to qualify for analyses: 51% Hispanic, 28% non-Hispanic Black, and 87% insured by Medicaid. Those at TIPP sites had significant reduction in the adjusted odds of reported injuries compared with non-TIPP sites throughout the follow-up (P = .005), with adjusted odds ratios (95% CI) of 0.77 (0.66-0.91), 0.60 (0.44-0.82), 0.32 (0.16-0.62), 0.26 (0.12-0.53), and 0.27 (0.14-0.52) at 4, 6, 12, 18, and 24 months, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: In this cluster-randomized trial with predominantly low-income, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic Black families, TIPP resulted in a significant reduction in parent-reported injuries. Our study provides evidence for implementing the American Academy of Pediatrics' TIPP in routine well-child care.

Language Disparities in Caregiver Satisfaction with Physician Communication at Well Visits from 0-2 Years.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to describe caregiver satisfaction with physician communication over the first two years of life and examine differences by preferred language and the relationship to physician continuity. METHODS: Longitudinal data were collected at well visits (2 months to 2 years) from participants in a randomized controlled trial to prevent childhood obesity. Satisfaction with communication was assessed using the validated Communication Assessment Tool (CAT) questionnaire. Changes in the odds of optimal scores were estimated in mixed-effects logistic regression models to evaluate the associations between satisfaction over time and language, interpreter use, and physician continuity. RESULTS: Of 865 caregivers, 35% were Spanish-speaking. Spanish-speaking caregivers without interpreters had lower odds of an optimal satisfaction score compared with English speakers during the first 2 years, beginning at 2 months [OR 0.64 (95% CI: 0.43, 0.95)]. There was no significant difference in satisfaction between English-speaking caregivers and Spanish-speaking caregivers with an interpreter. The odds of optimal satisfaction scores increased over time for both language groups. For both language groups, odds of an optimal satisfaction score decreased each time a new physician was seen for a visit [OR 0.82 (95% CI: 0.69, 0.97)]. CONCLUSION: Caregiver satisfaction with physician communication improves over the first two years of well-child visits for both English- and Spanish-speakers. A loss of physician continuity over time was also associated with lower satisfaction. Future interventions to ameliorate communication disparities should ensure adequate interpreter use for primarily Spanish-speaking patients and address continuity issues to improve communication satisfaction.

Benefits, Challenges, and Opportunities in Addressing Medicaid Beneficiaries' Non-Medical Risks to Health: A Qualitative Analysis.

CONTEXT: North Carolina's Healthy Opportunities Pilots (HOP) is a Medicaid 1115 Waiver program that seeks to address nonmedical risks to health for Medicaid beneficiaries through multisector collaboration. Among other stakeholders, HOP involves collaboration between human services organizations that deliver interventions, network leads, which establish and oversee the human services organizations within a region of the state. OBJECTIVE: To understand how employees at human services organizations and network leads prepared to deliver HOP services. DESIGN: Qualitative analysis of semistructured interviews. Interviews were conducted between April and June 2022. Interviews were recorded, transcribed verbatim, coded thematically, and analyzed using a conceptual model derived from the consolidated framework for implementation research. SETTING: Organizations within North Carolina counties participating in HOP. PARTICIPANTS: Employees of human services and network lead organizations across all 3 HOP regions of North Carolina. RESULTS: The researchers interviewed 37 participants. Overall, organizations experienced benefits from HOP participation, including capacity-building resources, flexibility in allocating resources, and creating community-wide enthusiasm for addressing nonmedical risks to health. There were also key challenges. These included the time needed to build capacity, adjustments to the work processes and regulations inherent to multisector collaboration, geographic variation in availability of services to offer, and the difficulty of addressing different needs. Finally, participants recognized substantial opportunities that HOP presented, including membership in a more extensive network, exposure to a learning community, and a more sustainable funding source. CONCLUSIONS: The perspectives of individuals preparing to deliver HOP services offer important lessons for those developing and implementing large-scale programs that can address nonmedical threats to health.

Long-Acting Reversible Contraception Initiation Among Adolescents After an American Academy of Pediatrics Policy Statement.

This cross-sectional study compares monthly rates of long-acting reversible contraception (LARC) insertions among adolescents before and after an American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) policy statement recommending LARC for this age group.

Investing in Child Health Through Alternative Payment Models: Lessons From North Carolina Integrated Care for Kids.

Pediatric value-based payment reform has been hindered by limited return on investment (ROI) for child-focused measures and the accrual of financial benefits to non-health care sectors. States participating in the federally-funded Integrated Care for Kids (InCK) models are required to design child-centered alternative payment models (APMs) for Medicaid-enrolled children. The North Carolina InCK pediatric APM launched in January 2023 and includes innovative measures focused on school readiness and social needs. We interviewed experts at NC Medicaid managed care organizations, NC Medicaid, and actuaries with pediatric value-based payment experience to assess the NC InCK APM design process and develop strategies for future child-focused value-based payment reform. Key principles emerging from conversations included: accounting for payer priorities and readiness to implement measures; impact of data uncertainty on investment in novel measures; misalignment of a short-term ROI framework with whole child health measures; and state levers like mandates and financial incentives to promote implementation.

Feeding, television, and sleep behaviors at one year of age in a diverse sample.

Background: Healthy lifestyle behaviors that can prevent adverse health outcomes, including obesity, are formed in early childhood. This study describes feeding, television, and sleep behaviors among one-year-old infants and examines differences by sociodemographic factors. Methods: Caregivers of one-year-olds presenting for well care at two clinics, control sites for the Greenlight Study, were queried about feeding, television time, and sleep. Adjusted associations between sociodemographic factors and behaviors were performed by modified Poisson (binary), multinomial logistic (multi-category), or linear (continuous) regression models. Results: Of 235 one-year-olds enrolled, 81% had Medicaid, and 45% were Hispanic, 36% non-Hispanic Black, 19% non-Hispanic White. Common behaviors included 20% exclusive bottle use, 32% put to bed with bottle, mean daily juice intake of 4.1 ± 4.6 ounces, and active television time 45 ± 73 min. In adjusted analyses compared to Hispanic caregivers, non-Hispanic Black caregivers were less likely to report exclusive bottle use (odds ratio: 0.11, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.03-0.39), reported 2.4 ounces more juice (95% CI 1.0-3.9), 124 min more passive television time (95% CI 60-188), and 37 min more active television time (95% CI 10-64). Increased caregiver education and higher income were associated with 0.4 (95% CI 0.13-0.66) and 0.3 (95% CI 0.06-0.55) more servings of fruits and vegetables per day, respectively. Conclusion: In a diverse sample of one-year-olds, caregivers reported few protective behaviors that reduce the risk for adverse health outcomes including obesity. Differences in behavior by race/ethnicity, income, and education can inform future interventions and policies. Future interventions should strive to create culturally effective messaging to address common adverse health behaviors.

TV Time, Especially During Meals, is Associated with Less Healthy Dietary Practices in Toddlers.

BACKGROUND: While several studies examine the relationship between screen time and dietary practices in children and teenagers, there is limited research in toddlers. This study evaluates the association between television (TV) exposure and dietary practices in two-year-old children. METHODS: We conducted a cross-sectional, secondary data analysis from the Greenlight Intervention Study. Toddlers' daily TV watching time, mealtime TV, and dietary practices were assessed by caregiver report at the 24-month well child visit. Separate regression models were used and adjusted for sociodemographic/household characteristics and clinic site. RESULTS: 532 toddlers were included (51% Latino; 30% non-Latino Black; 59% ≤$20,000 annual household income). Median daily TV watching time was 42 minutes [IQR: 25, 60]; 25% reported the TV was "usually on" during mealtimes. After adjustment, toddlers who watched more TV daily had higher odds of consuming sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB), fast food, and more junk food; those watching less TV had higher odds of consuming more fruits/vegetables. Those with the TV "usually on" during mealtimes were more likely to consume SSB [aOR 3.72 (95%CI 2.16-6.43)], fast food [aOR 2.83 (95%CI 1.54-5.20)], and more junk food [aOR 4.25 (95%CI 2.71-6.65)]. CONCLUSIONS: Among toddlers from primarily minoritized populations and of lower socioeconomic status, those who watched more TV daily and usually had the TV on during meals had significantly less healthy dietary practices, even after adjusting for known covariates. This study supports the current American Academy of Pediatrics screen time guidelines and underscores the importance of early counseling on general and mealtime TV.

Prenatal Risks to Healthy Food Access and High Birthweight Outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: Infants with high birthweight have increased risk for adverse outcomes at birth and across childhood. Prenatal risks to healthy food access may increase odds of high birthweight. We tested whether having a poor neighborhood food environment and/or food insecurity had associations with high birthweight. METHODS: We analyzed cross-sectional baseline data in Greenlight Plus, an obesity prevention trial across six US cities (n = 787), which included newborns with a gestational age greater than 34 weeks and a birthweight greater than 2500 g. We assessed neighborhood food environment using the Place-Based Survey and food insecurity using the US Household Food Security Module. We performed logistic regression analyses to assess the individual and additive effects of risk factors on high birthweight. We adjusted for potential confounders: infant sex, race, ethnicity, gestational age, birthing parent age, education, income, and study site. RESULTS: Thirty-four percent of birthing parents reported poor neighborhood food environment and/or food insecurity. Compared to those without food insecurity, food insecure families had greater odds of delivering an infant with high birthweight (adjusted odds ratios [aOR] 1.96, 95% confidence intervals [CI]: 1.01, 3.82) after adjusting for poor neighborhood food environment, which was not associated with high birthweight (aOR 1.35, 95% CI: 0.78, 2.34). Each additional risk to healthy food access was associated with a 56% (95% CI: 4%-132%) increase in high birthweight odds. CONCLUSIONS: Prenatal risks to healthy food access may increase high infant birthweight odds. Future studies designed to measure neighborhood factors should examine infant birthweight outcomes in the context of prenatal social determinants of health.

A Qualitative Study on Using Telemedicine for Precepting and Teaching in the Academic Setting.

PURPOSE: To examine the impact of telemedicine use on precepting and teaching among preceptors and patients during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHOD: The authors conducted a secondary analysis of a qualitative study focusing on providers' and patients' experiences with and attitudes toward telemedicine at 4 academic health centers. Teaching and precepting were emergent codes from the data and organized into themes. Themes were mapped to domains from the 2009 Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR), a framework that assists with effective implementation and consists of 5 domains: intervention characteristics, outer settings, inner settings, characteristics of individuals, and process. RESULTS: In total, 86 interviews were conducted with 65 patients and 21 providers. Nine providers and 3 patients recounted descriptions related to teaching and precepting with telemedicine. Eight themes were identified, mapping across all 5 CFIR domains, with the majority of themes (n = 6) within the domains of characteristics of individuals, processes, and intervention characteristics. Providers and patients described how a lack of prepandemic telemedicine experience and inadequate processes in place to precept and teach with telemedicine affected the learning environment and perceived quality of care. They also discussed how telemedicine exacerbated existing difficulties in maintaining resident continuity. Providers described ways communication changed with telemedicine use during the pandemic, including having to wear masks while in the same room as the trainee and sitting closely to remain within range of the camera, as well as the benefit of observing trainees with the attending's camera off. Providers expressed a lack of protected structure and time for teaching and supervising with telemedicine, and a general view that telemedicine is here to stay. CONCLUSIONS: Efforts should focus on increasing knowledge of telemedicine skills and improving processes to implement telemedicine in the teaching setting in order to best integrate it into undergraduate and graduate medical education.

Early Sweet Tooth: Juice Introduction During Early Infancy is Related to Toddler Juice Intake.

OBJECTIVE: To assess if 100% fruit juice intake prior to 6 months is associated with juice and sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) intake at 24 months and whether this differs by sociodemographic factors. METHODS: We used longitudinal data from infants enrolled in the control (no obesity intervention) arm of Greenlight, a cluster randomized trial to prevent childhood obesity which included parent-reported child 100% fruit juice intake at all well child checks between 2 and 24 months. We studied the relationship between the age of juice introduction (before vs after 6 months) and juice and SSB intake at 24 months using negative binomial regression while controlling for baseline sociodemographic factors. RESULTS: We report results for 187 participants (43% Hispanic, 39% non-Hispanic Black), more than half (54%) of whom had reported 100% fruit juice intake before 6 months. Average 100% fruit juice intake at 24 months was greater than the recommended amount (of 4 oz) and was 8.2 oz and 5.3 oz for those who had and had not, respectively, been introduced to juice before 6 months. In adjusted models, early introduction of juice was associated with a 43% (95% confidence interval: 5%-96%) increase in juice intake at 24 months. CONCLUSIONS: 100% fruit juice intake exceeding recommended levels at 6 and 24 months in this diverse cohort was prevalent. Introducing 100% fruit juice prior to 6 months may put children at greater risk for more juice intake as they age. Further research is necessary to determine if early guidance can reduce juice intake.

Parental Perspectives on the Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Infant, Child, and Adolescent Development.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study is to understand how families from diverse sociodemographic backgrounds perceived the impact of the pandemic on the development of their children. METHODS: We used a multimethod approach guided by Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Systems Theory, which identifies 5 developmental systems (micro, meso, exo, macro, and chrono). Semistructured interviews were conducted in English or Spanish with parents living in 5 geographic regions of the United States between July and September 2021. Participants also completed the COVID-19 Exposure and Family Impact Survey. RESULTS: Forty-eight families participated, half of whose preferred language was Spanish, with a total of 99 children ages newborn to 19 years. Most qualitative themes pertained to developmental effects of the microsystem and macrosystem. Although many families described negative effects of the pandemic on development, others described positive or no perceived effects. Some families reported inadequate government support in response to the pandemic as causes of stress and potential negative influences on child development. As context for their infant's development, families reported a variety of economic hardships on the COVID-19 Exposure and Family Impact Survey, such as having to move out of their homes and experiencing decreased income. CONCLUSION: In addition to negative impacts, many parents perceived positive pandemic-attributed effects on their child's development, mainly from increased time for parent-child interaction. Families described economic hardships that were exacerbated by the pandemic and that potentially affect child development and insufficient government responses to these hardships. These findings hold important lessons for leaders who wish to design innovative solutions that address inequities in maternal, family, and child health.

Social Support and Breastfeeding Outcomes Among a Racially and Ethnically Diverse Population.

INTRODUCTION: Social support is a modifiable social determinant of health that shapes breastfeeding outcomes and may contribute to racial and ethnic breastfeeding disparities. This study characterizes the relationship between social support and early breastfeeding. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional analysis of baseline data collected in 2019-2021 for an RCT. Social support was measured using the Enhancing Recovery in Coronary Heart Disease Social Support Instrument. Outcomes, collected by self-report, included (1) early breastfeeding within the first 21 days of life, (2) planned breastfeeding duration, and (3) confidence in meeting breastfeeding goals. Each outcome was modeled using proportional odds regression, adjusting for covariates. Analysis was conducted in 2021-2022. RESULTS: Self-reported race and ethnicity among 883 mothers were 50% Hispanic, 17% Black, 23% White, and 10% other. A large proportion (88%) of mothers were breastfeeding. Most breastfeeding mothers (82%) planned to breastfeed for at least 6 months, with more than half (58%) planning to continue for 12 months or more. Most women (65%) were confident or very confident in meeting their breastfeeding duration goal. In adjusted models, perceived social support was associated with planned breastfeeding duration (p=0.042) but not with early breastfeeding (p=0.873) or confidence in meeting breastfeeding goals (p=0.427). Among the covariates, maternal depressive symptoms were associated with lower breastfeeding confidence (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The associations between perceived social support and breastfeeding outcomes are nuanced. In this sample of racially and ethnically diverse mothers, social support was associated with longer planned breastfeeding duration but not with early breastfeeding or breastfeeding confidence.

The Greenlight Plus Trial: Comparative effectiveness of a health information technology intervention vs. health communication intervention in primary care offices to prevent childhood obesity.

BACKGROUND: The first 1000 days of a child's life are increasingly recognized as a critical window for establishing a healthy growth trajectory to prevent childhood obesity and its associated long-term comorbidities. The purpose of this manuscript is to detail the methods for a multi-site, comparative effectiveness trial designed to prevent childhood overweight and obesity from birth to age 2 years. METHODS: This study is a multi-site, individually randomized trial testing the comparative effectiveness of two active intervention arms: 1) the Greenlight intervention; and 2) the Greenlight Plus intervention. The Greenlight intervention is administered by trained pediatric healthcare providers at each well-child visit from 0 to 18 months and consists of a low health literacy toolkit used during clinic visits to promote shared goal setting. Families randomized to Greenlight Plus receive the Greenlight intervention plus a health information technology intervention, which includes: 1) personalized, automated text-messages that facilitate caregiver self-monitoring of tailored and age-appropriate child heath behavior goals; and 2) a web-based, personalized dashboard that tracks child weight status, progress on goals, and electronic Greenlight content access. We randomized 900 parent-infant dyads, recruited from primary care clinics across six academic medical centers. The study's primary outcome is weight for length trajectory from birth through 24 months. CONCLUSIONS: By delivering a personalized and tailored health information technology intervention that is asynchronous to pediatric primary care visits, we aim to achieve improvements in child growth trajectory through two years of age among a sample of geographically, socioeconomically, racially, and ethnically diverse parent-child dyads.

The Association Between Routine Car Seat Screening and Subsequent Health Care Utilization.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends preterm newborns undergo car seat tolerance screening (CSTS) before discharge despite limited evidence supporting the practice. We examined subsequent health care utilization in screened and unscreened late preterm and low birth weight newborns. METHODS: This observational study included late preterm (34-36 weeks) and term low birth weight (<2268 g) newborns born between 2014 and 2018 at 4 hospitals with policies recommending CSTS for these infants. Birth hospitalization length of stay (LOS) in addition to 30-day hospital revisits and brief resolving unexplained events were examined. Unadjusted and adjusted rates were compared among 3 groups: not screened, pass, and fail. RESULTS: Of 5222 newborns, 3163 (61%) were discharged from the nursery and 2059 (39%) from the NICU or floor. Screening adherence was 91%, and 379 of 4728 (8%) screened newborns failed the initial screen. Compared with unscreened newborns, adjusted LOS was similar for newborns who passed the CSTS (+5.1 hours; -2.2-12.3) but significantly longer for those who failed (+16.1; 5.6-26.7). This differed by screening location: nursery = +12.6 (9.1-16.2) versus NICU/floor = +71.2 (28.3-114.1) hours. Hospital revisits did not significantly differ by group: not screened = 7.3% (reference), pass = 5.2% (aOR 0.79; 0.44-1.42), fail = 4.4% (aOR 0.65; 0.28-1.51). CONCLUSIONS: Hospital adherence to CSTS recommendations was high, and failed screens were relatively common. Routine CSTS was not associated with reduced health care utilization and may prolong hospital LOS, particularly in the NICU/floor. Prospective trials are needed to evaluate this routine practice for otherwise low-risk infants.