Incidents and patterns of commotio cordis among athletes in the USA from 1982 to 2023.

INTRODUCTION: Commotio cordis is a rare event that occurs following blunt, non-penetrating trauma to the chest, precipitating a ventricular arrhythmia. Commotio cordis requires immediate medical attention through cardiopulmonary resuscitation and defibrillation, often resulting in death. Commotio cordis is most common condition among young male athletes. The purpose of this study was to describe the incidents and patterns of commotio cordis among young athletes participating in organised sports in the USA from academic years 1982-1983 through 2022-2023. METHODS: This was a retrospective, descriptive epidemiology study using surveillance data from the National Center for Catastrophic Sport Injury Research. The study included all commotio cordis incidents captured in the database. We calculated descriptive statistics (counts and proportions) overall and stratified by outcome and athlete sport. RESULTS: Over the study period, 64 incidents of commotio cordis were captured. The majority occurred among males (n=60) and were caused by contact with an object/apparatus (n=39) or contact with another player (n=20). The most common sports were baseball (n=20), lacrosse (n=17) and football (n=13). Over half of these incidents resulted in death (n=34), although survival from commotio cordis increased over the study period. A higher proportion of fatal incidents occurred among football athletes and were caused by contact with another player. CONCLUSIONS: Commotio cordis remains most common among young male athletes who participate in organised baseball, lacrosse and football. Although survival has improved over time, greater awareness and emergency preparedness for commotio cordis in an organised sport are needed to facilitate prompt recognition and intervention.

Preventing Exertional Heat Stroke in Football: Time for a Paradigm Shift.

CONTEXT: Among American sports, football has the highest incidence of exertional heat stroke (EHS), despite decades of prevention strategies. Based on recent reports, 100% of high school and college EHS football fatalities occur during conditioning sessions. Linemen are the at-risk population, constituting 97% of football EHS deaths. Linemen heat up faster and cool down slower than other players. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION: Case series were identified from organized, supervised football at the youth, high school, and collegiate levels and compiled in the National Registry of Catastrophic Sports Injuries. Sources for event occurrence were media reports and newspaper clippings, autopsy reports, certificates of death, school-sponsored investigations, and published medical literature. Articles were identified through PubMed with search terms "football," "exertional heat stroke," and "prevention." STUDY DESIGN: Clinical review. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level 5. RESULTS: Football EHS is tied to (1) high-intensity drills and conditioning that is not specific to individual player positions, (2) physical exertion as punishment; (3) failure to modify physical activity for high heat and humidity, (4) failure to recognize early signs and symptoms of EHS, and (5) death when cooling is delayed. CONCLUSION: To prevent football EHS, (1) all training and conditioning should be position specific; (2) physical activity should be modified per the heat load; (3) understand that some players have a "do-or-die" mentality that supersedes their personal safety; (4) never use physical exertion as punishment; (5) eliminate conditioning tests, serial sprints, and any reckless drills that are inappropriate for linemen; and (6) consider air-conditioned venues for linemen during hot practices. To prevent EHS, train linemen based on game demands. STRENGTH-OF-RECOMMENDATION TAXONOMY: n/a.

Catastrophic injuries and exertional medical events in lacrosse among youth, high school and collegiate athletes: longitudinal surveillance over four decades (1982-2020).

OBJECTIVE: To determine the incidence rates (IRs) of catastrophic injuries and exertional medical events in lacrosse athletes. METHODS: Catastrophic injuries and exertional medical events in lacrosse in the US among youth or amateur, high school and college athletes were analysed from the National Center for Catastrophic Sport Injury Research (NCCSIR) database from 1982/83 to 2019/20. Frequencies, IRs per 100,000 athlete-seasons (AS) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs), and incidence rate ratios (IRRs) with 95% CIs were calculated. Participation data were gathered from the National Federation of State High School Associations (NFHS), National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and USA Lacrosse. RESULTS: Sixty-nine catastrophic events (16 youth or amateur, 36 high school and 17 college; 84% male) occurred in US lacrosse from 7/1/1982 to 6/30/2020. Thirty-six percent of all incidents were fatal. The overall IR was 0.5 per 100,000 AS (95% CI: 0.4-0.7). There were 15 cases of non-traumatic sudden cardiac arrests (SCAs) and 15 incidents of commotio cordis. Fatality rates from SCA and commotio cordis decreased 95% (IRR = 0.05; 95% CI: 0, 0.2) from 1982/83-2006/07 to 2007/08-2019/20. Incidence rates were higher for collegiate versus high school 1982/83-2019/20 (IRR = 3.2; 95% CI: 1.8, 5.7) and collegiate versus youth 2005/06-2019/20 (IRR = 8.0; 95% CI: 3.0, 21.4) level. Contact with a stick or ball (41%) and contact with another player (20%) were the primary mechanisms of injury. CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of catastrophic events during lacrosse was higher among collegiate than high school or youth athletes. SCA from an underlying cardiac condition or from commotio cordis was the most common catastrophic event. Fatality rates from catastrophic injuries have declined significantly over the study period, perhaps driven by protective measures adopted by lacrosse governing bodies.

Key messagesCollegiate athletes had a higher incidence rate of catastrophic events during lacrosse, while high school athletes had the greatest overall number of events.Cardiac-related events were the most common catastrophic event.Fatality rates for non-traumatic sudden cardiac arrest and commotio cordis have decreased 95% over the past several decades, perhaps related to protective measures and increased access to automated external defibrillators promoted by lacrosse governing bodies.

Socioeconomic deprivation and racialised disparities in competitive athletes with sudden cardiac arrest from the USA.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the association of socioeconomic deprivation and racialised outcomes in competitive athletes with sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) in the USA. METHODS: SCA cases from the National Center for Catastrophic Sports Injury Research (July 2014 to June 2021) were included. We matched Area Deprivation Index (ADI) scores (17 metrics to grade socioeconomic conditions) to the 9-digit zip codes for each athlete's home address. ADI is scored 1-100 with higher scores indicating greater neighbourhood socioeconomic deprivation. Analysis of variance was used to assess differences in mean ADI by racial groups. Tukey post hoc testing was used for pairwise comparisons. RESULTS: 391 cases of SCA in competitive athletes (85.4% male; 16.9% collegiate, 68% high school, 10.7% middle school, 4.3% youth) were identified via active surveillance. 79 cases were excluded due to missing data (19 race, 60 ADI). Of 312 cases with complete data, 171 (54.8%) were white, 110 (35.3%) black and 31 (9.9%) other race. The mean ADI was 40.20 (95% CI 36.64, 43.86) in white athletes, 57.88 (95% CI 52.65, 63.11) in black athletes and 40.77 (95% CI 30.69, 50.86) in other race athletes. Mean ADI was higher in black versus white athletes (mean difference 17.68, 95% CI 10.25, 25.12; p=0.0036) and black versus other race athletes (mean difference 17.11, 95% CI 4.74, 29.47; p<0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Black athletes with SCA come from areas with higher neighbourhood socioeconomic deprivation than white or other race athletes with SCA. Our findings suggest that socioeconomic deprivation may be associated with racialised disparities in athletes with SCA.

Concussion-Related Decision-Making by Certified Athletic Trainers: Implications for Concussion Prevention and Care.

Concussions are a common sport-related injury that require appropriate initial care. Athletic trainers, often a primary source of healthcare for student-athletes, are key individuals involved in initial concussion diagnostic and management decisions. Challenges exist within the athletic environment that may hinder the consistency, efficacy, and/or effectiveness of concussion-related decision-making by athletic trainers, thereby impacting secondary concussion prevention and patient health. The purpose of this study was to identify factors that impact the intentions of athletic trainers to make appropriate concussion-related decisions under various circumstances. Overall, 1029 participants completed a survey examining educational precursors (quantity and quality of healthcare communication educational focus), demographic precursors (age, gender, educational degree, and employment setting), theory-based mediators (attitudes, perceived norms, and personal agency), and external mediators (knowledge, salience, and communication/collaboration practices) on appropriate concussion-related decision-making intentions. Data were analyzed using a two-step structural equation modeling approach. Quality of healthcare communication educational focus indirectly impacted appropriate concussion-related decision-making intentions via perceived behavioral control and communication/collaboration practices. Additionally, several factors impacted intentions to make appropriate concussion-related decisions directly including employment setting, self-efficacy, and general attitudes towards decision-making and concussions. Concussion prevention is aided by the initial and appropriate action taken by a healthcare professional to reduce immediate consequences; however, this action may be influenced by stakeholder relationships. These influential factors of decision-making may place athletes at further injury risk and negatively impact overall athlete health. As such, a sound theoretical framework incorporating the complexity of factors that may influence decision-making is needed.

Sudden Cardiac Death in National Collegiate Athletic Association Athletes: A 20-Year Study.

BACKGROUND: Understanding the incidence, causes, and trends of sudden cardiac death (SCD) among young competitive athletes is critical to inform preventive policies. METHODS: This study included National Collegiate Athletic Association athlete deaths during a 20-year time frame (July 1, 2002, through June 30, 2022). Athlete deaths were identified through 4 separate independent databases and search strategies (National Collegiate Athletic Association resolutions list, Parent Heart Watch database and media reports, National Center for Catastrophic Sports Injury Research database, and insurance claims). Autopsy reports and medical history were reviewed by an expert panel to adjudicate causes of SCD. RESULTS: A total of 143 SCD cases in National Collegiate Athletic Association athletes were identified from 1102 total deaths. The National Collegiate Athletic Association resolutions list identified 117 of 143 (82%), the Parent Heart Watch database or media reports identified 89 of 143 (62%), the National Center for Catastrophic Sports Injury Research database identified 63 of 143 (44%), and insurance claims identified 27 of 143 (19%) SCD cases. The overall incidence of SCD was 1:63 682 athlete-years (95% CI, 1:54 065-1:75 010). Incidence was higher in male athletes than in female athletes (1:43 348 [95% CI, 1:36 228-1:51 867] versus 1:164 504 [95% CI, 1:110 552-1:244 787] athlete-years, respectively) and Black athletes compared with White athletes (1:26 704 [1:20 417-1:34 925] versus 1:74 581 [1:60 247-1:92 326] athlete-years, respectively). The highest incidence of SCD was among Division I male basketball players (1:8188 [White, 1:5848; Black, 1:7696 athlete-years]). The incidence rate for SCD decreased over the study period (5-year incidence rate ratio, 0.71 [95% CI, 0.61-0.82]), whereas the rate of noncardiovascular deaths remained stable (5-year incidence rate ratio, 0.98 [95% CI, 0.94-1.04]). Autopsy-negative sudden unexplained death (19.5%) was the most common postmortem examination finding, followed by idiopathic left ventricular hypertrophy or possible cardiomyopathy (16.9%) and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (12.7%), in cases with enough information for adjudication (118 of 143). Eight cases of death were attributable to myocarditis over the study period (1 case from January 1, 2020, through June 30, 2022), with none attributed to COVID-19 infection. SCD events were exertional in 50% of cases. Exertional SCD was more common among those with coronary artery anomalies (100%) and arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (83%). CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of SCD in college athletes has decreased. Male sex, Black race, and basketball are associated with a higher incidence of SCD.

Examining injury trends in parcel delivery drivers in the United States: Challenges and opportunities.

INTRODUCTION: Growth of e-commerce has caused a vast increase in parcel delivery, which raises concern for safety of drivers and other road users as more deliveries take place. METHODS: This project analyzes injury/illness and fatality trends among workers with delivery-related NAICS codes using three major sources of occupational hazard data in the United States: the Survey of Occupational Illnesses and Injuries, the Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries, and the Industrial Tracking Application. Descriptive statistics were employed to illustrate trends over time as well as to highlight opportunities for improved data collection and dissemination. RESULTS: The number of injuries to drivers has risen sharply over the past decade. Some of this increase appears due to growth of this industry, but increasing overall rates suggest the industry is becoming more hazardous. While nonfatal injuries were typically caused by continuous workplace exposures (e.g., repetitive strain, contact with object/equipment), fatalities were almost exclusively caused by transportation incidents. Additionally, crucial aspects of these trends are difficult or impossible to analyze given the current data landscape. CONCLUSIONS: Observed trends reinforce earlier calls for additional scrutiny of working conditions that threaten drivers. Injuries caused by transportation incidents are likely more severe than others and highlight the danger the transportation system poses to drivers and others. Current data collection and dissemination processes offer room to improve in terms of understanding how to prevent future injuries.

Pedestrian Safety Among High School Runners: A Case Series.

BACKGROUND: Participation in high school cross-country and track has increased over the last few decades. At the same time, the rate of pedestrian-involved motor vehicle crashes (MVCs) has also increased. In the context of organized sport, pedestrian safety among runners is often not highlighted, despite the risk of catastrophic injury. PURPOSE: To describe incidents of pedestrian-involved MVCs involving student athletes captured by the National Center for Catastrophic Sport Injury Research (NCCSIR) at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. STUDY DESIGN: Case series. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level 5. METHODS: This study utilized surveillance data from the NCCSIR from 2011 to 2020. It presents descriptive statistics, including frequencies and percentages, detailed summaries, and a Haddon Matrix. RESULTS: There were 8 incidents involving 11 student athletes, resulting in 9 fatalities. Of these, 5 cases occurred in the afternoon or early evening, 4 occurred in the Fall, and 6 occurred in a rural area. Haddon Matrix analyses of case descriptions indicate schools should implement a runner safety program for all new runners and ensure that runner safety measures are included in emergency action plans. CONCLUSION: Runner-related MVCs are relatively rare, but tragic, incidents. Pedestrian safety measures should be incorporated into school-sponsored practices and training runs. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Pedestrian safety should be incorporated into runner safety and injury prevention efforts.

Sudden Death in High School Athletes: A Case Series Examining the Influence of Sickle Cell Trait.

ABSTRACT: Athletes with sickle cell trait (SCT) have up to a 37-fold increased risk of exercise-related death. Exertional collapse associated with sickle cell trait (ECAST) is uncommon but can lead to exercise-related death due to exertional sickling. We present a case series of fatal ECAST in high school athletes aged 14 to 16 years. All 3 athletes experienced collapse during practice sessions with muscle pain or weakness. Upon evaluation at the hospital, the athletes had a significant metabolic acidosis that did not respond as expected to fluid resuscitation. Admitting diagnoses for the athletes included exertional heat stroke or dehydration. All 3 athletes had profound rhabdomyolysis leading to acute renal failure, worsening metabolic acidosis, and hyperkalemia. They rapidly progressed to disseminated intravascular coagulation, multiorgan system failure, and death. The autopsies of all 3 athletes showed extensive sickle cell vaso-occlusion involving the spleen liver, and muscles. Final clinical and pathologic diagnosis supported ECAST with fatal exertional rhabdomyolysis. Exertional collapse associated with sickle cell trait is an uncommon but potentially deadly condition that is often underrecognized or misdiagnosed as exertional heat stroke. The development of ECAST is thought to be multifactorial with exercise intensity, recent illness, and exercising conditions (ie, heat and altitude). Prevention should be the primary goal for athletes with SCT through exercise modification, education of precipitation factors, and cessation of exercise with recent illness. Athletes with suspected ECAST should undergo aggressive resuscitation with a low threshold for early transfer to a tertiary care facility for further management and potential hemodialysis.

Socioeconomic factors and outcomes from exercise-related sudden cardiac arrest in high school student-athletes in the USA.

OBJECTIVE: Minority student-athletes have a lower survival rate from sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) than non-minority student-athletes. This study examined the relationship between high school indicators of socioeconomic status (SES) and survival in student-athletes with exercise-related SCA. METHODS: High school student-athletes in the USA with exercise-related SCA on school campuses were prospectively identified from 1 July 2014 to 30 June 2018 by the National Center for Catastrophic Sports Injury Research. High school indicators of SES included the following: median household and family income, proportion of students on free/reduced lunch and percent minority students. Resuscitation details included witnessed arrest, presence of an athletic trainer, bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation and use of an on-site automated external defibrillator (AED). The primary outcome was survival to hospital discharge. Differences in survival were analysed using risk ratios (RR) and univariate general log-binomial regression models. RESULTS: Of 111 cases identified (mean age 15.8 years, 88% male, 49% white non-Hispanic), 75 (68%) survived. Minority student-athletes had a lower survival rate compared with white non-Hispanic student-athletes (51.1% vs 75.9%; RR 0.67, 95% CI 0.49 to 0.92). A non-significant monotonic increase in survival was observed with increasing median household or family income and with decreasing percent minority students or proportion on free/reduced lunch. The survival rate was 83% if an athletic trainer was on-site at the time of SCA and 85% if an on-site AED was used. CONCLUSIONS: Minority student-athletes with exercise-related SCA on high school campuses have lower survival rates than white non-Hispanic athletes, but this difference is not fully explained by SES markers of the school.

Energy Availability and RED-S Risk Factors in Competitive, Non-elite Male Endurance Athletes.

Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S) is predicated on the assumption that low energy availability (EA) induces deficiencies-dysfunction in multiple physiologic systems. However, research on RED-S and EA in male athletes is limited in comparison to women. The aim of this study is to investigate EA and the risk factors for RED-S, and their potential associations in non-elite male endurance athletes. Laboratory assessments for resting metabolic rate (RMR), bone mineral density (BMD), blood hormonal biomarkers and maximal aerobic capacity were conducted on 60 competitive, recreationally trained male endurance athletes (age=43.4±11.6 years [mean±SD], training=10.9±2.7 h/wk, 7.1±8.8 years). Participants provided 7-days of training logs and 4-days of diet records. Diet and training records were used to calculate EA. Correlations were used to examine associations between EA and RMR, BMD, stress fractures and reproductive, metabolic and bone biomarkers. Mean EA was 28.7±13.4 kcal/kg fat free mass (FFM), which categorized our sample as low EA (based upon published criterion, < 30 kcal/kg FFM) and at a high risk for RED-S. Hormonal and bone biomarkers were in normal clinical ranges, even though EA was low. The only interesting significant association was EA being negatively associated with total body BMD (r = -0.360, P =0.005), opposite of expectations. On average our subjects displayed a state of low EA based upon the criterion which has been primarily developed from female-based research. Nonetheless, our participants displayed no major hormonal or bone health disturbances found in athletes diagnosed with RED-S. A value of < 30 kcal/kg FFM to diagnose low EA may not be appropriate for non-elite endurance trained men.

Epidemiology of sudden death in organized school sports in Japan.

BACKGROUND: Nearly half of the sudden deaths documented in Japanese middle and high school occurred during school organized sport activities. However, no study to date has calculated the incidence rates of these deaths by sport. Therefore, this study aimed to describe the epidemiology of sudden death in organized school sports in Japan. METHODS: Data submitted to Japan Sport Council (JSC) Injury and Accident Mutual Aid Benefit System between 2005 and 2016 were retrieved from JSC website for analysis (n = 1137). Case information on fatal incidents that occurred during organized school sports in middle and high school students were extracted for analysis (n = 198). Descriptive statistics about activity type, sex, sport, cause of death, and presence of on-site trained medical personnel were calculated using frequencies and proportions. Sudden death incidence rates were expressed per 100,000 athlete-years with 95% confidence intervals (CI). RESULTS: The overall incidence rate of sports-related death was 0.38 deaths per 100,000 athlete-years (95%CI = 0.30, 0.45). Only three cases (2%) reported having trained medical personnel on-site at the time of death. Most deaths were in male student athletes (n = 149/162, 92%), with 7.5 times greater fatality rate in male compared to female student athletes (incidence rate ratio, 7.5; 95%CI = 4.43, 13.22). Baseball (n = 25/162, 15.4%), judo (n = 24/162, 14.8%), soccer/futsal (n = 20/162, 12.3%), and basketball (n = 18/162, 11.1%) accounted for 53.7% of deaths. Accounting for the number of participants in the respective sport, the three highest average incident rates of death were reported in rugby (4.59 deaths per 100,000 athlete-years, 95%CI = 2.43, 6.75), judo (3.76 deaths per 100,000 athlete-years, 95%CI = 1.58, 5.93), and baseball (0.59 deaths per 100,000 athlete-years, 95%CI = 0.38, 0.79). The top three causes of death were sudden cardiac arrest (n = 68/162, 42.0%), head trauma (n = 32/162, 19.8%), and heat related injury (n = 25/162, 15.4%). CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, the highest rates of sports-related death among Japanese student athletes were observed in the following: rugby, male athletes, and during practices. The leading cause of death was sudden cardiac arrest.

Trends in movement quality in US Military Academy cadets 2005-17: A JUMP-ACL study.

OBJECTIVES: This study sought to determine if there were significant trends in lower extremity movement quality, as assessed by the Landing Error Scoring System (LESS) scores and plane-specific LESS subscales, across in 12 recent cohorts of incoming USMA cadets. DESIGN: prospective cohort study. SETTING: United States Military Academy. PARTICIPANTS: 7,591. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Landing Error Scoring System (LESS) scores, adjusted for sex and ACL injury history. RESULTS: Statistically significant inverse trends were found between total LESS score and year (p < 0.01) and sagittal plane subscale and year (p < 0.01). A statistically significant direct trend was found for the frontal/transverse plane subscale and year (p < 0.01). However, each of these trends had a small associated effect size, and none were considered clinically meaningful. CONCLUSIONS: There were no meaningful changes in lower extremity movement quality in incoming US Military Academy cadets between 2005 and 2017.

Aetiology and incidence of sudden cardiac arrest and death in young competitive athletes in the USA: a 4-year prospective study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the aetiology and incidence of sudden cardiac arrest and death (SCA/D) in US competitive athletes. METHODS: Prospective surveillance was conducted from 1 July 2014 to 30 June 2018 through the National Center for Catastrophic Sports Injury Research in collaboration with national sports organisations. Autopsy reports, death certificates, and medical records were reviewed by an expert panel to determine aetiology. Athlete participation statistics from the National Federation of State High School Associations and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) were used to calculate incidence rates per athlete-years (AY). Comparisons of incidence rates were calculated using incidence rate ratios (IRR) with 95% CIs. RESULTS: 331 cases of confirmed SCA/D (158 survivors; 173 fatalities) were identified; 15.4% in middle school, 61.6% in high school and 16.6% in college and professional athletes. Average age was 16.7 (11-29) years, and the majority were in male (83.7%), basketball (28.7%) or American football (25.4%) athletes. Common causes included hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (20.6%), idiopathic left ventricular hypertrophy (13.4%), coronary artery anomalies (12.0%) and autopsy-negative sudden unexplained death (9.6%). Coronary anomalies were more common in middle school athletes (28%), while cardiomyopathies (hypertrophic, arrhythmogenic, dilated, non-compaction or restricted) accounted for 47% of cases in college and professional athletes. Incidence was higher in male versus female athletes at the high school (1:43 932 AY (95% CI 1:38 101 to 1:50 907) vs 1:203 786 AY (95% CI 1:145 251 to 1:293 794); IRR 4.6 (95% CI 3.1 to 7.2)) and NCAA (1:34 906 AY (95% CI 1:25 385 to 1:49 173) vs 1:123 278 AY (95% CI 1:66 078 to 1:249 853); IRR 3.5 (95% CI 1.5 to 9.5)) levels. African American male NCAA Division I basketball players had the highest annual incidence rate of SCA/D (1:2087 AY (95% CI 1:1073 to 1:4 450)). CONCLUSIONS: Cardiomyopathies account for nearly half of SCA/D cases in college and professional athletes, while coronary artery anomalies play a more prominent role than expected in middle school athletes. Over half of SCA cases in athletes result in sudden death, calling for improved prevention strategies.

Etiology of Sudden Cardiac Arrest and Death in US Competitive Athletes: A 2-Year Prospective Surveillance Study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the etiology of sudden cardiac arrest and death (SCA/D) in competitive athletes through a prospective national surveillance program. DESIGN: Sudden cardiac arrest and death cases in middle school, high school, college, and professional athletes were identified from July 2014 to June 2016 through traditional and social media searches, reporting to the National Center for Catastrophic Sports Injury Research, communication with state and national high school associations, review of the Parent Heart Watch database, and search of student-athlete deaths on the NCAA Resolutions List. Autopsy reports and medical records were reviewed by a multidisciplinary panel to determine the underlying cause. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: US competitive athletes with SCA/D. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Etiology of SCA/D. RESULTS: A total of 179 cases of SCA/D were identified (74 arrests with survival, 105 deaths): average age 16.6 years (range 11-29), 149 (83.2%) men, 94 (52.5%) whites, and 54 (30.2%) African American. One hundred seventeen (65.4%) had an adjudicated diagnosis, including 83 deaths and 34 survivors. The most common etiologies included hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (19, 16.2%), coronary artery anomalies (16, 13.7%), idiopathic left ventricular hypertrophy/possible cardiomyopathy (13, 11.1%), autopsy-negative sudden unexplained death (8, 6.8%), Wolff-Parkinson-White (8, 6.8%), and long QT syndrome (7, 6.0%). Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy was more common in male basketball (23.3%), football (25%), and African American athletes (30.3%). An estimated 56.4% of cases would likely demonstrate abnormalities on an electrocardiogram. CONCLUSIONS: The etiology of SCA/D in competitive athletes involves a wide range of clinical disorders. More robust reporting mechanisms, standardized autopsy protocols, and accurate etiology data are needed to better inform prevention strategies.

Variability in the identification and reporting of overuse injuries among sports injury surveillance data collectors.

PURPOSE: This study examined variability in identifying and reporting overuse injuries among Certified Athletic Trainers (ATs). METHODS: This cross-sectional study of ATs participating in the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Injury Surveillance Program, utilized a novel online-only survey, consisting of seven hypothetical clinical scenarios representing various clinical presentations including overuse and acute elements. Participants reported clinical opinions regarding the role overuse played in each scenario (major contributor, not a major contributor, not enough information) and probability (0-100%) of classifying each scenario as having an overuse injury mechanism, then completed open-ended questions addressing their decision-making process. RESULTS: 74 ATs (25%) completed the survey. Six of the seven scenarios generated discordance in responses among the participating ATs. Variability in AT decisions involved: the progression of injury, duration of symptoms, and activity at time of injury. CONCLUSION: Developing a formalized definition of overuse injury may improve consistency and standardize methods for identifying and reporting overuse injuries within injury research.

Prevalence of Low Energy Availability in Competitively Trained Male Endurance Athletes.

Background and Objectives: Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) has been introduced as a broad-spectrum syndrome leading to possible dysfunction in numerous physiological systems, driven primarily by low energy availability (EA). Research in females has identified specific EA cut-points indicative of risk level for developing physiological and performance disturbances. Cut-points in males have yet to be evaluated. This study examined the prevalence of low EA in competitive (non-elite), recreationally trained (CRT) male endurance athletes. Materials and Methods: Subjects were 108 CRT (38.6 ± 13.8 y; 12.2 ± 5.4 h/wk training) male endurance athletes (runners, cyclists, triathletes) who completed a descriptive survey online via Qualtrics® and returned 3 day diet and exercise training records. EA was calculated from returned surveys and training records. Resting metabolic rate (RMR) and lean body mass (LBM) were estimated from self-reported survey data. Prevalence of risk group was categorized based on the female cut-points: at risk (AR) ≤30 kcal/kg LBM, moderate risk (MR) = 30-45 kcal/kg LBM, or no risk (NR) ≥45 kcal/kg LBM. Results: In this sample, 47.2% (n = 51) were classified as AR, 33.3% (n = 36) as MR, and 19.4% (n = 21) as NR for low EA. Cyclists had lower EA (26.9 ± 17.4 kcal/kg LBM, n = 45) than runners (34.6 ± 13.3 kcal/kg LBM, n = 55, p = 0.016) and all other sport categories (39.5 ± 19.1 kcal/kg LBM, n = 8, p = 0.037). Conclusions: The findings indicate this sample had a high prevalence of risk for low EA, at 47.2%. Only 19.4% of participants were at no risk, meaning ~80% of participants were at some degree of risk of experiencing low EA. Cyclists were at greater risk in this cohort of low EA, although why this occurred was unclear and is in need of further investigation. Future research should address whether the current female cut-points for low EA are appropriate for use in male populations.

Epidemiology of Cervical Muscle Strains in Collegiate and High School Football Athletes, 2011-2012 Through 2013-2014 Academic Years.

CONTEXT: Cervical muscle strains are an often-overlooked injury, with neck- and spine-related research typically focusing on spinal cord and vertebral injuries. OBJECTIVE: To examine the rates and distributions of cervical muscle strains in collegiate and high school football athletes. DESIGN: Descriptive epidemiology study. SETTING: Collegiate and high school football teams. PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS: The National Collegiate Athletic Association Injury Surveillance Program (NCAA-ISP) collected data from collegiate football athletes. The High School National Athletic Treatment, Injury and Outcomes Network (HS NATION) and High School Reporting Information Online (HS RIO) collected data from high school football athletes. Data from the 2011-2012 through 2013-2014 academic years were used. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S): Athletic trainers collected injury and exposure data for football players. Injury counts, injury rates per 10 000 athlete-exposures (AEs), and injury rate ratios with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated. RESULTS: The NCAA-ISP reported 49 cervical muscle strains (rate = 0.96/10 000 AEs), of which 28 (57.1%) were TL (time loss; rate = 0.55/10 000 AEs). High School NATION reported 184 cervical muscle strains (rate = 1.66/10 000 AEs), of which 33 (17.9%) were TL injuries (rate = 0.30/10 000 AEs). The HS RIO, which collects only TL injuries, reported 120 TL cervical muscle strains (rate = 0.51/10 000 AEs). The overall injury rate was lower in the NCAA-ISP than in HS NATION (injury rate ratio = 0.58; 95% CI = 0.42, 0.79); when restricted to TL injuries, the overall injury rate was higher in the NCAA-ISP (injury rate ratio = 1.83; 95% CI = 1.11, 3.03). No differences were found when comparing TL injuries in HS RIO and the NCAA-ISP. Cervical muscle-strain rates were higher during competitions than during practices across all 3 surveillance systems for all injuries. Most cervical muscle strains were due to player contact (NCAA-ISP = 85.7%, HS NATION = 78.8%, HS RIO = 85.8%). CONCLUSIONS: The incidence of cervical muscle strains in football players was low compared with other injuries. Nonetheless, identifying and implementing interventions, particularly those aimed at reducing unsafe player contact, are essential to further decrease the risk of injury and associated adverse outcomes.