Effects of 2 wintering practices on behavioral and physiological indicators of welfare of nonlactating, pregnant dairy cattle in a pasture-based system.

In countries with pasture-based dairy systems and relatively cold winters, such as New Zealand, it is common to manage pregnant, nonlactating cows on forage crop paddocks rather than pasture, due to slow pasture growth rates. Wintering dairy cattle on grazed crops can compromise welfare if wet and muddy underfoot conditions occur, which can reduce lying. This study investigated behavioral and physiological indicators of welfare of cows under 2 wintering practices: cows managed on and grazed kale crop (Brassica oleracea), and cows managed on pasture with baled hay. Following dry-off (d 0), 80 cows were randomly assigned to 1 of the 2 wintering practices (40 cows/practice) and monitored between d 4 and 32 (phase 1). During this period, lying and stepping behavior was continuously recorded using leg-based accelerometers. Blood samples were obtained at d 0 and 32 for measurements of thyroxine (T4), nonesterified fatty acids (NEFA), white blood cells (WBC), and red blood cells. All data for phase 1 were presented descriptively due to the lack of treatment replication. Daily mean air temperature during this period was 5.2°C (range: 0.0-10.7°C), and rainfall was 1.1 mm/d (range: 0-5.6mm/d). Between d 4 and 32, cows in both groups spent similar amounts of time lying (pasture with hay cows: 8.9 h/24 h ± 2.57, kale crop cows: 8.7 h/24 h ± 3.06, mean ± SEM). Both groups reduced their lying on wet and cold days, and there was evidence of rebound lying once unfavorable weather conditions stopped. Cows on kale crop had numerically higher NEFA and lower WBC compared with cows managed on pasture, although most physiological values were within normal ranges. In a second phase of the study (d 34 and 35), cows were managed under controlled, replicated conditions in the 2 wintering practices using typical on-farm stocking rates (2 or 4 cows per group in the pasture with hay and kale crop treatments, respectively; n = 10 groups/treatment). During this period, cow behavior, skin and surface temperatures, hygiene scores, feed intakes, and ground conditions were measured. Weather conditions during the 48-h exposure were mostly cold and dry (mean air temperature: 7.8°C, range: -2.2 to 20.5°C). Cows managed on pasture with hay spent more time lying down on the first day of exposure; however, this was likely due to less space being available to kale cows on this day. Cows managed on pasture with hay ruminated more than cows on kale crop on both days of observations (d 1: 37.9% vs. 30.9% of observations, d 2: 36.8% vs. 28.7% of observations for pasture with hay and kale crop groups, respectively) and were lying more often in postures indicative of greater thermal comfort. Cows managed on pasture with hay had higher skin and surface temperatures compared with cows on kale crop, whereas cows on kale crop had dirtier coats. Results suggest that opportunities for thermal comfort were greater for cows managed on pasture with hay bales, which may be due to increased rumination activities and more insulated lying areas.

Influenza virus specific CD8⁺ T cells exacerbate infection following high dose influenza challenge of aged mice.

Influenza viruses cause severe illnesses and death, mainly in the aged population. Protection afforded by licensed vaccines through subtype-specific neutralizing antibodies is incomplete, especially when the vaccine antigens fail to closely match those of the circulating viral strains. Efforts are underway to generate a so-called universal influenza vaccine expressing conserved viral sequences that induce broad protection to multiple strains of influenza virus through the induction of CD8⁺ T cells. Here we assess the effect of a potent antiviral CD8⁺ T cell response on influenza virus infection of young and aged mice. Our results show that CD8⁺ T cell-inducing vaccines can provide some protection to young mice, but they exacerbate influenza virus-associated disease in aged mice, causing extensive lung pathology and death.

Immunohistochemical and ultrastructural features of congenital melanocytic naevus cells support a stem-cell phenotype.

BACKGROUND: Multiple congenital melanocytic naevi (CMN) in one individual are caused by somatic mosaicism for NRAS mutations; however, the lineage of the mutated cells remains uncertain. OBJECTIVES: To test the hypothesis that CMN may be derived from cutaneous stem cells. METHODS: Sixty-six CMN samples from 44 patients were stained for immunohistochemical (IHC) markers of melanocytic differentiation (TYR, TRP1, TRP2, LEF1, MITF, cKit), pluripotency (nestin, fascin, CD133, CD20, CD34), monocyte/macrophage lineage (CD68, CD163, CD14), proliferation (Ki67) and MTOR/Wnt-signalling pathway activation (pS6, ß-catenin). Semiquantitative scoring compared samples with naevus cell nesting (group 1) with those with only diffuse dermal infiltration (group 2). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) was performed on 10 samples. RESULTS: A normal melanocyte population was seen overlying many dermal CMN. Group 1 samples were significantly more likely to express melanocytic differentiation markers than group 2, and expression decreased significantly with depth. Expression of these markers was correlated with each other, and with nestin and fascin. CD20 staining was positive in a substantial proportion and was stronger superficially. Expression of ß-catenin and pS6 was almost universal. Some samples expressed monocyte/macrophage markers. TEM revealed variable naevus cell morphology, striking macromelanosomes, double cilia and microvilli. CONCLUSIONS: Congenital melanocytic naevi development frequently coexists with normal overlying melanocyte development, leading us to hypothesize that in these cases CMN are likely to develop from a cell present in the skin independent of, or remaining after, normal melanocytic migration. IHC and TEM findings are compatible with CMN cells being of cutaneous stem-cell origin, capable of some degree of melanocytic differentiation superficially.

Biomechanical allometry in hominoid thoracic vertebrae.

Considerable differences in spinal morphology have been noted between humans and other hominoids. Although comparative analyses of the external morphology of vertebrae have been performed, much less is known regarding variations in internal morphology (density) and biomechanical performance among humans and closely related non-human primates. In the current study we utilize density calibrated computed tomography images of thoracic vertebral bodies from hominoids (n=8-15 per species, human specimens 20-40 years of age) to obtain estimates of vertebral bone strength in axial compression and anteroposterior bending and to determine how estimates of strength scale with animal body mass. Our biomechanical analysis suggests that the strength of thoracic vertebral bodies is related to body mass (M) through power law relationships (y proportional, variant M(b)) in which the exponent b is 0.89 (reduced major axis) for prediction of axial compressive strength and is equal to 1.89 (reduced major axis) for prediction of bending strength. No differences in the relationship between body mass and strength were observed among hominoids. However, thoracic vertebrae from humans were found to be disproportionately larger in terms of vertebral length (distance between cranial and caudal endplates) and overall vertebral body volume (p<0.05). Additionally, vertebral bodies from humans were significantly less dense than in other hominoids (p<0.05). We suggest that reduced density in human vertebral bodies is a result of a systemic increase in porosity of cancellous bone in humans, while increased vertebral body volume and length are a result of functional adaptation during growth resulting in a vertebral bone structure that is just as strong, relative to body mass, as in other hominoids.

Home visits after hospitalization: enhancing baccalaureate nursing students' gerontologic clinical experience.

This article describes posthospitalization visits by 83 nursing students to 57 older patients and their caregivers discharged from two large academic medical centers and one community hospital. Patient and caregiver interviews in the home focused on the areas of geriatric assessments of cognitive and functional status, patient and caregiver satisfaction with recent hospitalization, ongoing health management, patient teaching, and discharge planning.

A three-dimensional study of calcaneonavicular tarsal coalitions.

The authors studied 37 presumed calcaneonavicular tarsal coalitions from the Hamann-Todd Osteological Collection at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History. The anatomy of the coalitions and the associated subtalar and transverse tarsal joints was quite variable. The coalitions in 8 specimens completely spared the anterior facet of the calcaneus and in 7 specimens it was partially replaced by the navicular portion of the coalition, whereas in 22 specimens the anterior calcaneal facet was completely replaced by the navicular portion of the coalition. The authors suggest that the pathoanatomy of calcaneonavicular coalitions is not uniform and may involve the subtalar and transverse tarsal joints. This may have clinical relevance and contribute to the unsatisfactory results in feet undergoing coalition resection and soft tissue interposition.

Hyperostosis frontalis interna: an anthropological perspective.

Hyperostosis frontalis interna (HFI) is manifested by the accretion of bone on the inner table of the frontal bone. Despite the vast literature on HFI, ambiguity exists as to its etiology, osteogenesis, demography, and history. This stimulated the present broad-scale study of HFI which included the evaluation of 1,706 early 20th century skulls (1,007 males and 699 females) from the Hamann-Todd and Terry human osteological collections, as well as 2,019 pre-19th century East-Mediterranean, Amerindian, and Central European skulls. In addition, 72 cadavers were dissected for gross inspection and histology. Special attention was paid to the relationship of the brain and meninges to endocranial lesions. HFI is an independent condition, not a symptom of a more generalized syndrome as suggested in the past. It can appear in a variety of forms but each is the result of the same process and probably of the same etiology. Investigators' previous failure to recognize the mild stages of HFI (types A and B) as an early form of the general HFI process led to erroneous statistics and interpretations of observations. HFI should also be considered a phenomenon separate from HCI, hyperostosis cranialis diffusa (HCD), and other endostoses, even when it appears in association with them. To avoid ambiguity and facilitate the description of cranial hyperostoses, uniform nomenclature (HFI, HCD) has been recommended. HFI is rarely seen in historic populations, regardless of geographical origin. It is most commonly found among females and is believed to be associated with prolonged estrogen stimulation. While its magnitude of manifestation and frequency are much higher in females, HFI is not a purely female phenomenon. Males with hormonal disturbances such as atrophic testis were found to manifest HFI type D. HFI is associated with age insofar as it is much less frequent in females under 40 years of age. Although advanced cases of HFI (types C and D) have been observed in individuals as young as 40 years of age, it is more frequently found after age 60. The frequency of HFI type D will not increase from age 60. Type-predicted analysis by cohort reveals significant ethnic differences. Changes in African American (AA) females appear earlier in life and progress more rapidly than in European American (EA) females. Analysis of radiographs shows a discrepancy between the anatomic prevalence of HFI and its radiological recognition, which is very poor for mild cases. This apparently resulted in the misconceptions that HFI is entirely an old-age phenomenon, and that it is exclusively female. Histological analysis shows that the inner table along with the closely attached dural layer play a major role in the osteogenesis of HFI. Contrary to previous models, no evidence for diploe or ectocranial plate involvement was found. Cadaver study suggests that the predilection for the frontal area may be related to an altered blood supply and/or vascular stretching.

Australopithecus garhi: a new species of early hominid from Ethiopia.

The lack of an adequate hominid fossil record in eastern Africa between 2 and 3 million years ago (Ma) has hampered investigations of early hominid phylogeny. Discovery of 2.5 Ma hominid cranial and dental remains from the Hata beds of Ethiopia's Middle Awash allows recognition of a new species of Australopithecus. This species is descended from Australopithecus afarensis and is a candidate ancestor for early Homo. Contemporary postcranial remains feature a derived humanlike humeral/femoral ratio and an apelike upper arm-to-lower arm ratio.

The elusive diploic veins: anthropological and anatomical perspective.

Diploic veins (Canales diploicae), which were identified in dogs by Dupuytren more than 200 years ago (Hecker [1845] Die anatomische Verhaltnisse und Krankheiten der Venae diploicae und Vasa emissaria. Erfahrungen und Abhandlungen im Gebiete der Chirurgie und Augenheilkunde. Erlangen), have remained inadequately understood and scantily referenced in the anatomical and anthropological literature. The tunnels formed by diploic veins are among the few known skeletal markers of soft tissue alteration. Protected by two bony laminae, diploic vein tunnels often resist postdepositional destruction and may provide a new way to assess living and extinct hominid populations. This basic research was carried out to enable future utilization of the diploic venous channels in anthropologic research. In the present study, diploic venous channels were observed radiographically in 108 human adults aged 19 years and above, 18 infants and children aged 1-18 years (Hamann-Todd Osteological Collection), eight fetuses aged 7-9 months (the Johns Hopkins Collection), and seven nonhuman primates (Hamann-Todd Osteological Collection). In addition, seven documented cases of parents and children were radiographed for genetic evaluation (Osteological Collection of The Hungarian Natural History Museum). Five distinct diploic distribution patterns were identified and described in this study. This was at variance with the impressions reported in dissection-based studies. Independence of diploic vein pattern from demographic (gender and age) and size factors and their tendency to be symmetrical make them amenable and reliable traits for skeletal population study. Diploic vein patterns appeared to be more complicated in humans than in nonhuman primates, raising the possibility of future phylogenetic applications.

Recognition of sickle cell anemia in skeletal remains of children.

The present study discusses in detail the osteological changes associated with sickle cell anemia in children and their importance in differential diagnosis. Posterior calcaneal and specific articular surface disruptive metacarpal lesions are diagnostic for sickle cell anemia. Calvarial thickening, tibial and femoral cortical bone thickening, and bowing are of more limited utility in differential diagnosis. Granular osteoporosis, pelvic demineralization and rib broadening are nonspecific. Localized calvarial "ballooning," previously not described, may have diagnostic significance. Bone marrow hyperplastic response (porotic hyperostosis) in sickle cell anemia produces minimal radiologic changes contrasted with that observed in thalassemia and blood loss/hemolytic phenomenon. Two other issues, the osteological criteria for discriminating among the anemias and the purported relationship between porotic hyperostosis and iron deficiency anemia, are also discussed. There is sufficient information to properly diagnose the four major groups of anemias, and further, to establish that iron deficiency is only indirectly associated with porotic hyperostosis. The hyperproliferative bone marrow response (manifest as porotic hyperostosis) to blood loss or hemolysis exhausts iron stores, resulting in secondary iron deficiency.

Cortical bone distribution in the femoral neck of hominoids: implications for the locomotion of Australopithecus afarensis.

Contiguous high resolution computed tomography images were obtained at a 1.5 mm slice thickness perpendicular to the neck axis from the base of the femoral head to the trochanteric line in a sample of 10 specimens each of Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes, and Gorilla gorilla, plus five specimens of Pan paniscus. Superior, inferior, anterior, and posterior cortical thicknesses were automatically measured directly from these digital images. Throughout the femoral neck H. sapiens displays thin superior cortical bone and inferior cortical bone that thickens distally. In marked contrast, cortical bone in the femoral neck of African apes is more uniformly thick in all directions, with even greater thickening of the superior cortical bone distally. Because the femoral neck acts as a cantilevered beam, its anchorage at the neck-shaft junction is subjected to the highest bending stresses and is the most biomechanically relevant region to inspect for response to strain. As evinced by A.L. 128-1, A.L. 211-1 and MAK-VP-1/1, Australopithecus afarensis is indistinguishable from H. sapiens, but markedly different from African apes in cortical bone distribution at the femoral neck-shaft junction. Cortical distribution in the African ape indicates much greater variation in loading conditions consistent with their more varied locomotor repertoire. Cortical distribution in hominids is a response to the more stereotypic loading pattern imposed by habitual bipedality, and thin superior cortex in A. afarensis confirms the absence of a significant arboreal component in its locomotor repertoire.

Subclinical slipped capital femoral epiphysis. Relationship to osteoarthrosis of the hip.

We examined the femora of 2665 adult human skeletons from an osteological collection to determine the prevalence of post-slip morphology termed femoral head-tilt deformity by Murray and pistol-grip deformity by Stulberg et al. The hypothesis was that primary osteoarthrosis of the hip is a secondary manifestation of a subclinical developmental disorder of the hip. The prevalence of post-slip morphology was 8 per cent (215 of 2665 skeletons). Severe osteoarthrosis was more prevalent in association with post-slip morphology (116 [38 per cent] of 306 hips) than in the matched controls (seventy-nine [26 per cent] of 306 hips) (p < 0.005). In the skeletons that had unilateral post-slip morphology, severe osteoarthrosis was more prevalent in the involved hips (thirty-one [37 per cent] of eighty-three) than in the contralateral, normal hips (eighteen [22 per cent] of eighty-three) (p < 0.05). Post-slip morphology, which was unrelated to age, was found to be a major risk factor for the development of high-grade osteoarthrosis. We noted evidence of high-grade osteoarthrosis in sixty-three (68 percent) of the ninety-three hips with minimum post-slip morphology in skeletons from individuals who had been fifty-six years old or more at the time of death compared with forty-five (48 percent) of the ninety-three control hips. This difference was significant (p < 0.025) [corrected]. The osteoarthrosis in the hips with post-slip morphology was distinctly characterized by anterior flattening of the acetabulum, cystic degeneration in the anterior metaphyseal-epiphyseal region, and progression to global osteoarthrosis of the hip.

The elusive petroexoccipital articulation.

In the present study, 1,869 skulls from the Hamann-Todd Collection were examined (macroscopically and by radiographs) for closure of the petroexoccipital articulation (jugular synchrondrosis). The results demonstrated the the petroexoccipital articulation underwent closure between 20 and 50 years of age in most human skulls evaluated. Approximately 7-10% of the human skulls underwent complete union of the petroexoccipital articulation before 20 years of age. In 5-9% of the population, the joint remained completely open. After 50 years of age, there was no increase in the frequency of individuals with incomplete closure. The frequency of "partial closure" was similar (4-8%) for all age groups (20-25, 30-35, 40-45, 50-55, 60-65, and 70+), excluding the 30-35 year old group (17.5%). The time interval necessary for closure to occur appeared to be very short. No significant differences in closure rates due to ethnic origin, gender, or laterality were noted. The utility of the pteroexoccipital articulation as an age estimator is discussed.

Why do we fail in aging the skull from the sagittal suture?

The controversy over the reliability of ectocranial suture status (open vs. closed) as an age estimation stimulated the pursuit of Meindl and Lovejoy's suggestion (Meindl and Lovejoy [1985] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 68:57-66) for large scale analysis. The extent of the sagittal suture closure was assessed in 3,636 skulls from the Hamann-Todd and Terry collections. The debate over whether cranial suture ossification represents a pathologic or an age-predictable pathologic process also stimulated a comparison with age and two stress markers, hyperostosis frontalis interna and tuberculosis. Sagittal suture closure was found to be age-independent and sexually biased. The wide confidence intervals (for age) appear to preclude meaningful application of suture status for age determination. No correlation was found with the tested biological stressors.

Recognition of leukemia in skeletal remains: report and comparison of two cases.

Recognition of disease in the archeologic record is facilitated by characterization of the skeletal impact of documented (in life) disease. The present study describes the osteological manifestations of leukemia as identified in the skeletons of two individuals diagnosed during life: a 3-year-old black girl with acute lymphocytic leukemia and a 60-year-old white male with acute myelogenous leukemia in the Hamann-Todd collection. Contrasting with the lack of specificity of radiologic findings, macroscopic skeletal changes appear sufficiently specific to allow distinguishing leukemia from other forms of cancer. While leukemia appears confidently diagnosable, distinguishing among the varieties (e.g., myelogenous and lymphocytic) does not appear possible at this time. Skeletal findings in leukemia are presented in tabular form to facilitate their application to future diagnosis of the disease in the archaeological record.

Identification of childhood arthritis in archaeological material: juvenile rheumatoid arthritis versus juvenile spondyloarthropathy.

The opportunity to examine the defleshed skeleton of an individual diagnosed in life (Hamann-Todd collection, individual 2036) afforded a unique opportunity to demonstrate the bone damage characteristic of at least one form of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis (JRA). Characteristics helpful for recognition of JRA in archaeological material include peripheral articular marginal and subchondral erosions, axial (e.g., zygapophyseal or sacroiliac) joint erosions, fusion of axial (cervical zygapophyseal) and/or peripheral joints, premature epiphyseal closure and/or ballooned epiphyses, growth retardation with underdeveloped (short and overtubulated) long bones, short mandibular rami with underdeveloped condyles and concomitant micrognathia, and demineralization (osteopenia). Distinguishing between JRA and juvenile spondyloarthropathy, however, is not always possible, as illustrated by this case.

[Variation of sphenoidal angle of human skull in the course of aging]. / Variation de l'angle sphénoïdal du crâne humain en fonction du vieillissement.

The degree of the cranial base flexion is a major parameter in the study of the evolution of verbal communication in mankind. The variability of this area among modern humans has received little attention. In the present study, a sample of 330 modern human skulls have been used to characterize the changes in the angle of the cranial base flexion with age, and its possible relationships with gender and ethnic origin. Statistical analysis of the results show significant changes with age. Two conclusions emerged: i) the debate regarding Neanderthal speech should also consider the effect of age on the cranial base; and ii) the sphenoidal angle can be used as an ageing criterion in forensic and anthropological studies.

Size and location of the human temporomandibular joint.

The literature abounds with conflicting data on various morphometric aspects of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ). The purpose of this study was to observe the effects of sex, ethnic group, and edentulism on TMJ osseous morphology and to define possible factors which might influence variation in this structure. TMJs and related craniofacial structures were measured directly on 229 dry skulls and matching mandibles. Analysis of variance, principal component analysis, and cluster analysis were performed. Our results indicate that 1) the anteroposterior-related TMJ dimensions are independent of sex, ethnic group, and edentulism; 2) the transverse TMJ dimension is related to cranial breadth measures; and 3) the projected distance, along a midsagittal plane, between the TMJ and foramen magnum is independent of sex, ethnicity, and edentulism. It is our assertion that the TMJ must not be considered as a single morphological structure but rather viewed as a functional unit with component parts which are subordinate to completely different sets of influences.

Factors affecting the rate and pattern of the first costal cartilage ossification.

In the present study, the extent of costochondral ossification of the first rib was determined from 78 chest roentgenograms of 13 healthy male soldiers subjected to a periodic follow-up. Roentgenography was performed at a mean interval of 2.9 years over a 15-year period. Mean subject age was 24 years at the commencement of the study and 37 years at its termination. Our results show that ossification of the first costal cartilage may start early in adult life and progress at individual rates. The ossification process proceeded from the costal toward the sternal end of the cartilage in an anteromedial direction. The morphological age-related changes ranged from the formation of small osseous islands in the cartilage to a complete ossification between the first rib and the sternum. The main conclusion of the study is that the degree of ossification of the first costal cartilage as an indicator of age does not provide the precision necessary for anthropological or forensic studies.