High resolution gamma-ray spectrometry for routine measurements of environmental samples.

A practical and comprehensive experimental approach for radioactivity measurements of voluminous environmental samples using high-resolution gamma-ray spectrometry with High Purity Germanium (HPGe) detector is presented. The radioanalytical procedure includes sample preparation, detector calibration, implemented corrections, quality control and assurance; and it is demonstrated with the determination of natural and anthropogenic radionuclides in water and soil standard samples. The methodology is verified, and the results are validated by intercomparison with the refence values provided as part of a worldwide proficiency test.

In situ characterization using natural radio-tracers in a submarine freshwater spring, Kiveri, Greece.

A medium resolution underwater gamma ray spectrometer was deployed in the submarine groundwater spring of Anavalos and was combined with conductivity and temperature sensors for continuous measurements of natural radioactivity, salinity and water temperature, respectively. The activity concentrations of radon progenies varied from (5-40) kBq m-3, exhibited reverse dependence with salinity and were found above the guideline proposed by Environmental Protection Agency (11 kBq m-3). Their ratio was above unity indicating radon gas escape to the atmosphere. Time-series of the activity concentration together with their ratios were provided enabling the system configuration for long term monitoring applications. The in-situ method proved to be an effective tool to study the radioactivity levels of the spring and the groundwater - seawater interaction process. Furthermore, the proposed tool provides cost-effective measurements in terms of real-time and long-term requirements and, it is characterized by flexibility in terms of sensor integration in different platforms to perform submarine groundwater studies in a temporal and spatial manner.

Calibration of a CeBr3 based γ-spectrometer for onsite and laboratory radioactivity measurements in sediment samples.

The calibration of an underwater spectrometer, consisting of a CeBr3 crystal, is performed for sediment sample measurements, via experimental data and Monte Carlo simulations. The system was implemented for activity concentration measurements in marine sediment samples in the laboratory. The results were compared with corresponding high resolution measurements and showed that the system provides accurate results, but relatively high uncertainties. Different measurement geometries are theoretically studied via Monte Carlo simulations in order to improve the system performance for such measurements.

Dispersion pattern of 226Ra and 235U using the ERICA Tool in the coastal mining area, Ierissos Gulf, Greece.

Natural radionuclides, present in mining materials, can exhibit elevated values, thus it is of great interest to study their dispersion in mining areas. Radionuclide spatial variations were determined in coastal surface sediments near the mining area of Ierissos Gulf in northern Greece. 226Ra and 235U measured concentrations were compared with the estimations of ERICA Tool, the dispersion patterns were derived and the affected region around the load-out pier area was calculated to be approximately 21 km2.

An in-situ gamma-ray spectrometer for the deep ocean.

A low resolution subsea gamma-ray spectrometer is developed for monitoring radioactivity in the deep ocean. The detection system provides quantitative results combining experimental and simulated data. The system is tested for pressures up to 456 105 Pa and is demonstrated in the deep sea South of Crete (Greece) at a depth of 2700 m. The minimum detectable activity for 214Bi considering a 7200 s measurement, was found 0.3 Bq/L due to the extremely low background contribution at high energies.

A methodology for expanding the use of NaI(Tl) based spectrometry in environmental radioactivity measurements.

A methodology that extends the usability of low and medium resolution γ-ray detectors to a wide range of energies that appear in environmental radioactivity measurements is described. Results of the implementation of the methodology in the analysis of 20 granite samples measured with a (3″ × 3″) NaI(Tl) are presented. A comparison with the activity results obtained by a high-resolution detector (HPGe) for two samples was found in good agreement, within the uncertainties, validating the results of the proposed method.

Estimation of coastal residence time of submarine groundwater discharge using radium progenies.

A methodology based on γ-spectrometry measurements of untreated coastal water samples is proposed for the direct estimation of coastal residence time of submarine discharged groundwater. The method was applied to a submarine spring at Stoupa Bay covering all seasons. The estimated residence time exhibited an annual mean of 4.6±1.7 d. An additional measurement using the in situ underwater γ-spectrometry technique was performed, in the same site. The in situ method yielded a value of 2.8±0.2 d that was found consistent with the corresponding value derived using the developed lab-based method (3.4±2.0 d) for the same period.

Implementation of FLUKA for γ-ray applications in the marine environment.

The FLUKA code was implemented to simulate pulse-height spectra of a NaI(Tl) detector (excluding its resolution), considering radioactive sources of naturally occurring and artificial radionuclides present in the marine environment. For this purpose, a user-defined routine was developed for the proper simulation of the emitted γ-rays. The results were compared with simulations performed using the MCNP-CP code. The comparison of the recorded counts in the full-energy peaks, for the high intensity (emission probability >15%) emitted γ-rays for each radionuclide, yielded a satisfactory agreement (calculated ratios from 0.93 ± 0.05 to 1.07 ± 0.02) in all the studied cases.

Radioactivity and metal concentrations in marine sediments associated with mining activities in Ierissos Gulf, North Aegean Sea, Greece.

Marine sediment samples were collected from Ierissos Gulf, N Aegean Sea, close to the coastal mining facilities. Measurements of radionuclide and metal concentrations, mineral composition and grain size distribution were performed. The concentrations of (226)Ra, (235)U and trace metals showed enhanced values in the port of Stratoni compared with those obtained near to Ierissos port. The dose rates received by marine biota were also calculated by the ERICA Assessment Tool and the results indicated no significant radiological risk.

Efficiency calibration for in situ γ-ray measurements on the seabed using Monte Carlo simulations: Application in two different marine environments.

A new approach for calibrating an in situ detection system for measurements in marine sediments has been developed. The efficiency calibration was deduced on full spectral range by Monte Carlo simulations (MCNP5 code) considering a close detector-seabed geometry set-up. Moreover, the influence of the detection efficiency with respect to the variations of the sediment geological characteristics was studied through Monte Carlo simulations. The results of the theoretical approach were compared with experimental calculations in two different real test cases, yielding a satisfactory agreement (up to 10% and 20% for sites 1 and 2 respectively) in the energy range from 351 keV to 2614 keV. For the experimental measurements, the in situ detection system KATERINA was deployed both in the seawater and on the seabed in two different marine environments. The experimental determinations of the detection efficiency were performed by utilizing the acquired data of the deployments, along with additional necessary laboratory measurements. The adopted approach and the obtained results are discussed.

In situ γ-ray spectrometry in the marine environment using full spectrum analysis for natural radionuclides.

The Full Spectrum Analysis approach was applied to obtain activity concentration estimations for in situ measurements in the marine environment. The 'standard spectra' were reproduced using the MCNP-CP code. In order to extract the activity concentrations, χ(2) minimization calculations were performed by implementing the MINUIT code. The method was applied to estimate the activity concentrations for measurements in the marine environment in three different test cases. The estimated activity concentrations were in good agreement with the experimentally derived ones within uncertainties.

Activity concentration and spatial distribution of radionuclides in marine sediments close to the estuary of Shatt al-Arab/Arvand Rud River, the Gulf.

Tigris and Euphrates rivers both emerge in eastern Turkey and cross Syria and Iraq. They unite to Shatt al-Arab/Arvand Rud River and discharge in Arabic/Persian Gulf. The activity concentration of natural and anthropogenic radionuclides was measured during the August of 2011 in a number of surficial sediment samples collected from the seabed along an almost straight line beginning near the estuary mouth and extending seaward. The results exhibited low activity concentration levels and an almost homogeneous spatial distribution except locations where sediment of biogenic origin, poor in radionuclides, dilute their concentrations. Dose rates absorbed by reference marine biota were calculated by the ERICA Assessment Tool considering the contribution of 40 K. The results revealed a relatively low impact of 40 K mainly to species living in, on and close to the seabed. Also, statistical association of radionuclides with selected stable elements (Ca, Ba and Sr) did not indicate presence of by-products related with oil and gas exploitation and transportation activities. Moreover, a semi-empirical sedimentology model applied to reproduce seabed granulometric facies based entirely on radionuclides activity concentrations.

Seabed radioactivity based on in situ measurements and Monte Carlo simulations.

Activity concentration measurements were carried out on the seabed, by implementing the underwater detection system KATERINA. The efficiency calibration was performed in the energy range 350-2600 keV, using in situ and laboratory measurements. The efficiency results were reproduced and extended in a broadened range of energies from 150 to 2600 keV, by Monte Carlo simulations, using the MCNP5 code. The concentrations of (40)K, (214)Bi and (208)Tl were determined utilizing the present approach. The results were validated by laboratory measurements.

Vertical distribution of (137)Cs activity concentration in marine sediments at Amvrakikos Gulf, western of Greece.

The aim of the present work is the study of (137)Cs migration in sediment column taking into account the sedimentation rate in the Amvrakikos Gulf, at the western part of Greece. Marine core sediments were collected and the measurements were performed using the high resolution gamma-ray spectrometry method. The vertical distribution of (137)Cs activity concentration, as part of anthropogenic marine radioactivity, provided averaged sedimentation rate by identifying the depths of activity concentrations due to the Chernobyl accident and the nuclear tests signals. Furthermore, (137)Cs measurements were reproduced using the proposed one-dimensional diffusion-advection model which provides mainly as an output, the sedimentation rate and the average diffusivity of (137)Cs in the sediment column. The proposed model estimates the temporal variation of (137)Cs activity concentration from 1987 (one year after the Chernobyl accident) till today (2014).

Radioactivity measurements in the aquatic environment using in-situ and laboratory gamma-ray spectrometry.

The in-situ underwater gamma-ray spectrometry method is validated by inter-comparison with laboratory method. Deployments of the spectrometer KATERINA on a submarine spring and laboratory measurements of water samples with HPGe detector were performed. Efficiency calibrations, Monte Carlo simulations and the Minimum Detectable Activity (MDA) estimations were realized. MDAs varied from 0.19 to 10.4 (lab) and 0.05 to 0.35 (in-situ) Bq/L, while activity concentrations differed from 7% (for radon progenies) up to 10% (for (40)K), between the two methods.

Distribution of natural radioactivity in sediment cores from Amvrakikos Gulf (Western Greece) as a part of IAEA's campaign in the Adriatic and Ionian Seas.

The vertical distribution of natural radionuclides ((232)Th decay, (238)U decay, (40)K and (210)Pb) was assessed in sediment cores collected from the Amvrakikos Gulf, (Ionian Sea, Western Greece). Two collection stations were selected, the first at the western part of the Gulf near Preveza Strait (13A station) and the other near the centre of the Gulf (13B station). Activity concentrations were measured by means of gamma-ray spectrometry using high-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors installed at two national laboratories. The activity concentration of (226)Ra was found in a range from 10 to 20 Bq kg(-1), while the activity concentration of (222)Rn daughters ((214)Pb, (214)Bi) ranged from 6 to 20 Bq kg(-1). The activity concentration of (228)Ac varied from 20 to 28 Bq kg(-1), while (220)Rn daughters ((212)Pb, (208)Tl) from 7 to 35 Bq kg(-1). As concerns (40)K and (210)Pb, their activities varied from 400 to 830 Bq kg(-1) and from 11 to 360 Bq kg(-1), respectively. Also, the data of (210)Pb were utilised in the calculations of the sedimentation rate along the sediment cores. Both locations were characterised by a consistent pattern with the average rates of 0.55 ± 0.02 and 0.32 ± 0.02 cm y(-1), corresponding to 13A and 13B stations, respectively. Finally, the measurements constituted the basis of the first reported database concerning the radiological condition of the Gulf and which can be reclaimed as reference values in future monitoring studies.

Underwater in situ measurements of radionuclides in selected submarine groundwater springs, Mediterranean Sea.

The application of the in situ measurement system 'KATERINA' for monitoring of radon progenies in submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) was investigated at different locations in the Mediterranean Sea (Chalkida, Stoupa, Korfos and Cabbé). At Chalkida and Stoupa radon progenies concentration exhibited almost constant values of 1.2 ± 0.1 and 2.5 ± 0.2 Bq l(-1), respectively. At Korfos these activities ranged between 1.4 ± 0.1 and 2.3 ± 0.2 Bq l(-1) exhibiting inverse relationship with salinity. At Cabbé the in situ measured data were compared with radon measurements obtained by liquid scintillation counter. The system also resolved radon progeny variations of SGD on time scales above 1 h. The radioactivity levels of radon progenies from all sites were found considerably lower (approximately 2 orders of magnitude) than the commonly accepted limits for radon in drinking water.

Rapid screening of 90Sr activity in water and milk samples using Cherenkov radiation.

A method for screening 90Sr in milk samples is proposed. This method is based on a liquid scintillation technique taking advantage of Cherenkov radiation, which is produced in a liquid medium and then detected by the photomultipliers of a Liquid Scintillation Counter (LSC). Twenty millilitres of water and milk samples spiked with various concentrations of 90Sr/90Y in equilibrium were added in plastic vials and then were measured with an LSC (TriCarb 3170 TR/SL). The derived efficiencies were 49% for water samples and 14% for milk samples. The detection limit was 470 mBq L(-1)(90)Sr for water, without any pretreatment. Milk contains potassium, which also produces Cherenkov radiation due to the presence of 40K. For this reason, the interference of 40K in the measurements of 90Sr in milk samples was also investigated. The detection limit for milk was 1.7 Bq L(-1)90Sr.

Radon activity levels and effective doses in the Perama Cave, Greece.

An investigation of atmospheric radon levels in the Perama Cave, North-western Greece, has been carried out using CR-39 detectors. The detectors were placed at various locations along the guided cave pathway and exposed during different sampling periods. Mean concentrations amounting to 925 +/- 418 and 1,311 +/- 352 Bq m-3 were recorded in the summer and winter months, respectively. As the Perama Cave is one of the most popular in Greece, attracting more than 85,000 tourists per year, the quantification of effective doses to staff and visitors was an issue of importance. Doses less than 5.1 microSv per visit were calculated for tourists and around 1.8 mSv y-1 for seasonal guides, employed for periods of high visiting frequency. The annual exposure of permanent guides was estimated to fall between 3 and 10 mSv, which is the range of action levels recommended by the ICRP.

Alpha-particle production in the reaction 6Li+28Si at near-barrier energies.

The production of alpha particles in the 6Li+28Si reaction was studied at near-barrier energies. Angular distributions were performed at four bombarding energies, namely, 7.5, 9, 11, and 13 MeV. The distributions were characterized by a Gaussian shape, which was integrated in order to obtain alpha-particle cross sections. Our results were compared with previous data of 6Li scattering on various heavier targets and found to exhibit a universal behavior. Present continuum-discretized-coupled-channel calculations support the obtained data. The consequences of the systematic behavior of the alpha-particle production on the unusual behavior of the imaginary potential observed previously in elastic scattering of weakly bound systems is discussed.