Effect of ß-casein A1 or A2 milk on body composition, milk intake, and growth in Holstein, Simmental, and crossbred dairy calves of both sexes.

The aim of this study was to compare the effects of feeding homozygous ß-CN A1 or A2 milk on the body composition, milk intake, and growth of German Holstein (GH), German Simmental (GS), and crossbred (CR) dairy calves of both sexes during the first 2 wk of life. A total of 104 calves (n = 54 female, f; and n = 50 male, m) from the breed groups GH (n = 23), GS (n = 61), and crossbred GH × GS (n = 20) were evaluated. Calves were weighed after birth and received colostrum ad libitum. On the second day, calves were alternately housed in pairs in double-igloo systems according to their random birth order and received either A1 milk (n = 52; 27 female and 25 male) or A2 milk (n = 52; 27 female and 25 male). They were offered 7.5 L/d, and the individual actual total milk intake was recorded. Daily energy-corrected milk intake was also calculated based on the milk composition (fat and protein). Fecal scores were recorded daily. On d 15, visceral adipose tissue (VAT) volume was assessed by open magnetic resonance imaging and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). In addition, fat and lean mass (g), as well as bone mineral content (g) and bone mineral density (g/cm2), were determined by DXA. The body composition, milk intake, and growth were similar between the 2 types of milk in the first 2 wk of life. Female calves had more VAT and fat mass, but less lean mass than male calves. GH and CR calves had more VAT and less lean mass than GS calves. Male calves were heavier than female calves after birth and on d 15. The average days with diarrhea and diarrhea occurrence were similar between calves fed A1 and A2 milk and between both sex groups. GS calves presented slightly more days with diarrhea and increased odds of having diarrhea compared with GH calves, not differing from CR.

A Burkholderia pseudomallei colony variant necessary for gastric colonization.

UNLABELLED: Diverse colony morphologies are a hallmark of Burkholderia pseudomallei recovered from infected patients. We observed that stresses that inhibit aerobic respiration shifted populations of B. pseudomallei from the canonical white colony morphotype toward two distinct, reversible, yet relatively stable yellow colony variants (YA and YB). As accumulating evidence supports the importance of B. pseudomallei enteric infection and gastric colonization, we tested the response of yellow variants to hypoxia, acidity, and stomach colonization. Yellow variants exhibited a competitive advantage under hypoxic and acidic conditions and alkalized culture media. The YB variant, although highly attenuated in acute virulence, was the only form capable of colonization and persistence in the murine stomach. The accumulation of extracellular DNA (eDNA) was a characteristic of YB as observed by 4',6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) staining of gastric tissues, as well as in an in vitro stomach model where large amounts of eDNA were produced without cell lysis. Transposon mutagenesis identified a transcriptional regulator (BPSL1887, designated YelR) that when overexpressed produced the yellow phenotype. Deletion of yelR blocked a shift from white to the yellow forms. These data demonstrate that YB is a unique B. pseudomallei pathovariant controlled by YelR that is specifically adapted to the harsh gastric environment and necessary for persistent stomach colonization. IMPORTANCE: Seemingly uniform populations of bacteria often contain subpopulations that are genetically identical but display unique characteristics which offer advantages when the population is faced with infrequent but predictable stresses. The pathogen Burkholderia pseudomallei is capable of forming several reversible colony types, and it interconverted between one white type and two yellow types under certain environmental stresses. The two yellow forms exhibited distinct advantages in low-oxygen and acidic environments. One yellow colony variant was the only form capable of chronic stomach colonization. Areas of gastric infection were marked by bacteria encased in a DNA matrix, and the yellow forms were able to produce large amounts of extracellular DNA in vitro. We also identified the regulator in control of yellow colony variant formation. These findings demonstrate a role in infection for colony variation and provide a mechanism for chronic stomach colonization-a frequently overlooked niche in melioidosis.

Triggered by asphyxia neurogenesis seems not to be an endogenous repair mechanism, gliogenesis more like it.

We analyzed the long-term consequences of asphyxial cardiac arrest for hippocampal cell proliferation in rats to evaluate if the ischaemia-induced degenerated CA1 region may be repopulated by endogenous (stem) cells. Studies were performed in an asphyxial cardiac arrest model with 5 minutes of asphyxiation and three different survival times: 7, 21, and 90 days. Sham-operated non-asphyxiated rats served as control. Cell proliferation was studied by labeling dividing cells with 5-bromo-2'-deoxy-uridine (BrdU). The neurodegenerative/regenerative pattern at single cell levels was monitored by immunohistochemistry. Alterations of gene expression were analyzed by real-time quantitative RT-PCR. Analysis of BrdU-incorporation demonstrated an increase at 7, 21 as well as 90 days after global ischaemia in the hippocampal CA1 pyramidal cell layer. Similar results were found in the dentate gyrus. Differentiation of BrdU-positive cells, investigated by cell phenotype-specific double fluorescent labeling, showed increased neurogenesis only in the dentate gyrus of animals surviving the cardiac arrest for 7 days. The majority of newcomers, especially in the damaged CA1 region, consisted of glial cells. Moreover, asphyxia seemed to be able to induce the migration of microglia and astroglia from adjacent areas into the damaged area and/or the activation of resident cells. In addition, we show microglia proliferation/activation even 90 days after cardiac arrest. This morphological finding was confirmed by PCR analysis. The results indicate that asphyxia triggers cell proliferation in general and gliogenesis in particular - a possible pro-reparative event. Furthermore, from the finding of microglia proliferation up to 90 days after insult we conclude that delayed cell death processes take place which should be considered for further therapy strategies.

[Surgical treatment of chronic mesenteric ischemia: report of one case]. / Tratamiento quirúrgico de la isquemia mesentérica crónica: Caso clínico.

Although the classic therapy for chronic mesenteric ischemia is surgical revascularization, endovascular therapy is a new therapeutic option. We report a 55 year-old female, with a 2 years history of post prandial abdominal pain, diarrhoea, and weight loss, with occlusion of both mesenteric arteries and critical stenosis of the celiac artery. The initial treatment consisted in angioplasty and celiac artery stent placement in two occasions, with a brief symptomatic relief. Finally, a visceral artery bypass was performed, with good post operative outcome and complete symptomatic resolution at one year follow up. In our opinion endovascular therapy is a good therapeutic option for chronic mesenteric ischemia in high surgical risk patients, specially when dealing with stenotic injuries. It may also be a complement for patients who need to recover their nutritional status prior to revascularization surgery. On the other hand, due to the long term patency and symptomatic relief, surgical treatment is a good option in low risk patients.

Tratamiento quirúrgico de la isquemia mesentérica crónica: Caso clínico / Surgical treatment of chronic mesenteric ischemia: Report of one case

Although the classic therapy for chronic mesenteric ischemia is surgical revascularization, endovascular therapy is a new therapeutic option. We report a 55 year-old female, with a 2 years history of post prandial abdominal pain, diarrhoea, and weight loss, with occlusion of both mesenteric arteries and critical stenosis of the celiac artery. The initial treatment consisted in angioplasty and celiac artery stent placement in two occasions, with a brief symptomatic relief. Finally, a visceral artery bypass was performed, with good post operative outcome and complete symptomatic resolution at one year follow up. In our opinion endovascular therapy is a good therapeutic option for chronic mesenteric ischemia in high surgical risk patients, specially when dealing with stenotic injuries. It may also be a complement for patients who need to recover their nutritional status prior to revascularization surgery. On the other hand, due to the long term patency and symptomatic relief, surgical treatment is a good option in low risk patients.

[Transfusion incidents reports of grade zero: a national and descriptive analysis upon two years of practical survey]. / Les incidents transfusionnels de grade zéro: analyse descriptive nationale sur deux ans de pratique.

A grade zero transfusion incident is defined as an inappropriate transfusion of blood component due to one or several failures without immediate clinical or biological consequences for the recipient. Two years after the setting up of the mandatory notification of these incidents, Afssaps haemovigilance unit performed a first descriptive national analysis of the data collected in years 2003 and 2004 at the national level. This analysis was based on one part on computarised e-Fit national database and on the other part on investigation results documents and additional surveys set up by the network professionals. From a quantitative point of view, this study reveals differences in notification as well as in the type of analysis from one region to another. Quantitatively, 45% of grade zero transfusion incidents correspond to attribution errors. The site of origin of grade zero incidents is for almost 73% linked to health establishment, clinical unit or hospital blood bank, and for almost 23% linked to blood establishment. Complete analysis has notably shown that 9% of the incidents are due to errors in blood component prescription. This descriptive analysis, which identifies recurrent failure and critical points originating from non-appropriated transfusions, should constitute the starting point of a reflection aiming at optimising and standardising methods of analysis of grade zero transfusion incidents and at elaborating suggestions to better control critical points.

Down regulation of virulence factors of Pseudomonas aeruginosa by salicylic acid attenuates its virulence on Arabidopsis thaliana and Caenorhabditis elegans.

Salicylic acid (SA) is a phenolic metabolite produced by plants and is known to play an important role in several physiological processes, such as the induction of plant defense responses against pathogen attack. Here, using the Arabidopsis thaliana-Pseudomonas aeruginosa pathosystem, we provide evidence that SA acts directly on the pathogen, down regulating fitness and virulence factor production of the bacteria. Pseudomonas aeruginosa PA14 showed reduced attachment and biofilm formation on the roots of the Arabidopsis mutants lox2 and cpr5-2, which produce elevated amounts of SA, as well as on wild-type Arabidopsis plants primed with exogenous SA, a treatment known to enhance endogenous SA concentration. Salicylic acid at a concentration that did not inhibit PA14 growth was sufficient to significantly affect the ability of the bacteria to attach and form biofilm communities on abiotic surfaces. Furthermore, SA down regulated three known virulence factors of PA14: pyocyanin, protease, and elastase. Interestingly, P. aeruginosa produced more pyocyanin when infiltrated into leaves of the Arabidopsis transgenic line NahG, which accumulates less SA than wild-type plants. This finding suggests that endogenous SA plays a role in down regulating the synthesis and secretion of pyocyanin in vivo. To further test if SA directly affects the virulence of P. aeruginosa, we used the Caenorhabditis elegans-P. aeruginosa infection model. The addition of SA to P. aeruginosa lawns significantly diminished the bacterium's ability to kill the worms, without affecting the accumulation of bacteria inside the nematodes' guts, suggesting that SA negatively affects factors that influence the virulence of P. aeruginosa. We employed microarray technology to identify SA target genes. These analyses showed that SA treatment affected expression of 331 genes. It selectively repressed transcription of exoproteins and other virulence factors, while it had no effect on expression of housekeeping genes. Our results indicate that in addition to its role as a signal molecule in plant defense responses, SA works as an anti-infective compound by affecting the physiology of P. aeruginosa and ultimately attenuating its virulence.

Plant models for animal pathogenesis.

Several bacteria that are pathogenic to animals also infect plants. Mechanistic studies have proven that some human/animal pathogenic bacteria employ a similar subset of virulence determinants to elicit disease in animals, invertebrates and plants. Therefore, the results of plant infection studies are relevant to animal pathogenesis. This discovery has resulted in the development of convenient, cost-effective, and reliable plant infection models to study the molecular basis of infection by animal pathogens. Plant infection models provide a number of advantages in the study of animal pathogenesis. Using a plant model, mutations in animal pathogenic bacteria can easily be screened for putative virulence factors, a process which if done using existing animal infection models would be time-consuming and tedious. High-throughput screening of plants also provides the potential for unravelling the mechanisms by which plants resist animal pathogenic bacteria, and provides a means to discover novel therapeutic agents such as antibiotics and anti-infective compounds. In this review, we describe the developing technique of using plants as a model system to study Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecalis and Staphylococcus aureus pathogenesis, and discuss ways to use this new technology against disease warfare and other types of bioterrorism.

Aneurisma aislado gigante de arteria ilíaca común / Giant isolated aneurysm of common iliac artery

Introducción: Los aneurismas solitarios de la arteria ilíaca son poco frecuentes, además de ser difíciles de detectar por su localización en la pelvis, lo cual se asocia a una alta mortalidad cuando se complican de ruptura. En la literatura extranjera existen casuísticas más bien pequeñas que han sido reunidas en un período largo de tiempo. En nuestro medio sólo hay un reporte en la literatura nacional, motivo por el cual presentamos un caso clínico de un aneurisma aislado gigante de arteria ilíaca. Material y Método: Se presenta el caso de un paciente hombre de 84 años, sin antecedentes de patologías preexistentes, quien consulta por masa pulsátil en fosa ilíaca derecha asintomática, demostrándose por ecografía la presencia de aneurisma ilíacos bilaterales, mayor a derecha. Tomografía computada confirma el diagnóstico y las dimensiones, llamando la atención que el aneurisma ilíaco derecho mide cerca de 10 cm de diámetro, sin sintomatología ni amenaza de ruptura. Se somete a cirugía reconstructiva arterial, realizándose reemplazo aortobiilíaco con prótesis bifurcada de Dacrón a través de un abordaje transperitoneal. Resultados: Cirugía bien tolerada con un postoperatorio sin incidentes, controlándose al cuarto mes de operado, encontrándose el paciente asintomático. Discusión: Los aneurismas solitarios de la arteria ilíaca son poco frecuentes. Afectan al adulto mayor principalmente a hombres. La etiología es de tipo degenerativa, pero también se han descrito de tipo micóticos y congénitos o secundarios a Síndrome de Marfán, Ehlers-Danlos, Arteritis de Takayasu, Necrosis quística de la media, disección espontánea y secundarios a trauma. El segmento más afectado es la arteria ilíaca común. La Tomografía Computarizada es el método de elección para confirmar el diagnóstico, sus dimensiones y la localización, la angiografía se emplea en el caso de sospechar enfermedad oclusiva arterial asociada y cuando se plantea su tratamiento vía endovascular. Pueden originar síntomas de comprensión de órganos vecinos y fistulizarse al intestino u otras estructuras. Sin embargo, la mayor complicación es la ruptura que lleva asociada una alta mortalidad. De allí que los mejores resultados de tratamiento se obtienen cuando se operan en forma electiva aquellos con un diámetro mayor de 3 cm. El tratamiento de elección sigue siendo el reemplazo protésico del segmento afectado mediante cirugía vascular convencional.

Oclusión aórtica aguda: una grave emergencia vascular de difícil manejo / Acute abdominal aorta occlusion: difficult management of a serious vascular emergency

Introducción: La oclusión aguda de la aorta abdominal es un evento poco frecuente pero que constituye una real emergencia vascular, siendo potencialmente catastrófica, desde el punto de vista de la morbilidad y mortalidad, si ésta no es tratada precozmente y en forma agresiva desde el punto de vista quirúrgico. En nuestro medio sólo existen dos publicaciones con sólo ocho casos en total en un lapso de cuatro años, motivo por el cual en este reporte se describen dos casos operados en nuestro servicio. Material y Método: Se trata de dos casos clínicos que presentaron oclusión aguda de la aorta abdominal de tipo trombótica secundaria a enfermedad ateroesclerótica, en que ambos requirieron de revasculación aórtica. El primero, aórtica simple acompañado de trombectomía de la aorta proximal y el segundo revascularización aórtica compleja. Resultados: El primer caso, sobrevive y no presenta complicaciones. El segundo caso, fallece a los 18 días del postoperatorio debido a un accidente vascular hemorrágico. Discusión: La oclusión aórtica aguda es una emergencia vascular poco frecuente cuyas causas son principalmente por embolía y enfermedad ateroesclerótica subyacente. Afecta de preferencia a pacientes en edad avanzada y su diagnóstico debe ser sospechado por la clínica, ya que se caracteriza por signos de isquemia aguda de ambas extremidades inferiores. Sin embargo, hay un grupo de pacientes cuya sintomatología, hace difícil plantear el diagnóstico ya que puede simular un cuadro neurológico, una insuficiencia renal o un abdomen agudo quirúrgico por isquemia intestinal. El diagnóstico puede ser confirmado por la Tomografía Computarizada, pero es fundamental la Angiografía, a fin de definir su localización y la extensión de la oclusión para poder planear en buena forma el tratamiento quirúrgico, el cual debe ser precoz y agresivo cuando se requiere una revascularización. Aún así la morbimortalidad sigue siendo alta. Como conclusión, creemos que la precocidad en el diagnóstico y el tratamiento quirúrgico agresivo de revascularización en los casos de trombosis secundaria a enfermedad ateromatosa es la mejor opción de sobrevida para este tipo de pacientes.

Detection of a Landau band-coupling-induced rearrangement of the Hofstadter butterfly.

The spectrum of 2D electrons subjected to a weak 2D potential and a perpendicular magnetic field is composed of Landau bands with a fractal internal pattern of subbands and minigaps referred to as Hofstadter's butterfly. The Hall conductance may serve as a spectroscopic tool as each filled subband contributes a specific quantized value. Advances in sample fabrication now finally offer access to the regime away from the limiting case of a very weak potential. Complex behavior of the Hall conductance is observed and assigned to Landau band-coupling-induced rearrangements within the butterfly.

Characterization of migration behavior of myogenic precursor cells in the limb bud with respect to Lmx1b expression.

Limb buds develop from lateral plate-derived stationary mesenchyme and are invaded by cells from extrinsic regions. The largest populations of these cells are myogenic precursor cells that originate from the lateral dermomyotomes. After detachment under the influence of SF/HGF, myogenic precursor cells migrate in a proximo-distal direction and populate a dorsal and ventral zone. The patterning mechanism leading to the segregation of dorsal and ventral myogenic cells is at present not understood. Lmx1b, a LIM homeodomain transcription factor expressed in the dorsal mesenchyme of the developing limb bud, forms a sharp dorso-ventral boundary of expression within the limb. We have investigated the mechanisms of dorso-ventral patterning of muscle precursor cells in the limb buds with respect to Lmx1b expression using quail-chick chimeras and transgenic mice. Although cells appeared to be capable of migrating either ventrally or dorsally, their migration was restricted to the position they had attained during normal development or in the experimental situation. They were never found to cross the dorso-ventral boundary. Immunohistochemistry and histological analysis of mice carrying a LacZ reporter gene under the control of the endogenous Lmx1b locus confirmed that myogenic precursors in the limb bud were devoid of Lmx1b expression. In addition, it was shown that Lmx1b is not only expressed at early stages of limb development but maintains its pattern, at least until after birth. The present study provides new insights into migratory pathways of myogenic precursor cells and reveals details of Lmx1b expression on a cellular basis within the limb.

[DRG-based cost analysis of inpatient conservative treatment of stage III/IV peripheral arterial occlusive disease]. / DRG-basierte Kostenanalyse zur stationären konservativen Behandlung der PAVK Stadium III/IV.

UNLABELLED: DRG-based cost analysis of inpatient conservative treatment of PAD stage III/IV BACKGROUND: In a prospective study carried out by the German Society of Angiology and the DRG Competence Center, Munich, the question was investigated whether the costs of conservative treatment of patients with PAOD stage III/IV (DRG F65) are adequately represented within the current G-DRG system. METHODS UND PATIENTS: Between September 1 and December 16, 2002, a total of 704 patients with DRG F65 (peripheral vascular diseases) were evaluated at 8 angiologic centers in Germany. Apart from the length of hospital stay, the total costs (cost equivalents) were calculated using a method developed by the DRG Research Group at the University of Münster. Moreover, the study population was compared with a German calculation sample for the DRGs F65A/B, as published by InEK. RESULTS: As it turned out, conservatively treated patients with PAOD stage III or IV (DRGs F65A/B) cause significantly (p < 0.001) higher costs and have significantly (p < 0.001) greater lengths of hospital stay than patients who were also assigned to DRG F65 because of other vascular diseases. At the same time it became clear that angiologic centers treat twice as many patients with critical limb ischemia in comparison with the German average. The reimbursement hitherto estimated by InEK covers not even half the cost actually produced by conservative treatment of PAD stage III/IV. CONCLUSION: To ensure a performance-related reimbursement, a new basis DRG for patients with PAD stage III/IV has to be created, as has ben proposed by the German Society of Angiology. Otherwise, adequate conservative therapy in accordance with existing guidelines, of patients who cannot be treated surgically or interventionally will not be possible any more in the future.

Efflux as a mechanism of resistance to antimicrobials in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and related bacteria: unanswered questions

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic human pathogen exhibiting innate resistance to multiple antimicrobial agents. This intrinsic multidrug resistance is caused by synergy between a low-permeability outer membrane and expression of a number of broadly-specific multidrug efflux (Mex) systems, including MexAB-OprM and MexXY-OprM. In addition to this intrinsic resistance, these and three additional systems, MexCD-OprJ, MexEF-OprN and MexJK-OprM promote acquired multidrug resistance as a consequence of hyper-expression of the efflux genes by mutational events. In addition to antibiotics, these pumps export biocides, dyes, detergents, metabolic inhibitors, organic solvents and molecules involved in bacterial cell-cell communication. Homologues of the resistance-nodulation-division systems of P. aeruginosa have been found in Burkholderia cepacia, B. pseudomallei, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, and the nonpathogen P. putida, where they play roles in resistance to antimicrobials and/or organic solvents. Despite intensive studies of these multidrug efflux systems over the past several years, their precise molecular architectures, their modes of regulation of expression and their natural functions remain largely unknown

Revascularización inframaleolar: utilidad de los puentes a las arterias plantares / Inframalleolar revascularization: usefullnes of bypass to plantar arteries

La revascularización infrainguinal es el mejor tratamiento para una extremidad con isquemia crítica. Excepcionalmente se requiere revascularizar vasos ultradistales como son las ramas derivadas de las arterias del pie, por ausencia de vasos tibiales adecuados. En nuestro medio, la experiencia con los puentes arteriales a las arterias plantares es pequeña, lo que motiva este reporte inicial. En los últimos siete meses se efectuaron 4 puentes arteriales a las plantares en cuatro pacientes, con edades desde los 55 a los 81 años, todos de sexo masculino, diabéticos e hipertensos. Tres son tabáquicos y uno es dislipidémico. Dos pacientes tenían revascularizaciones previas en la extremidad contralateral y dos tenían revascularizaciones previas en la extremidad afectada. La indicación quirúrgica fue necrosis e infección en tres pacientes y dolor de reposo en uno. Todos los puentes fueron efectuados con safena en modalidad invertida. No hubo morbimortalidad en la serie, con buenos resultados funcionales. Si bien no se puede hablar de permeabilidad a largo plazo, todos los puentes están permeables en un lapso desde uno a seis meses. Creemos que estos puentes son técnicamente más factibles de realiza si se los compara con los otros puentes a las ramas de la arteria peia, incluso en términos de resultados de permeabilidad, y que justifican plenamente su uso en estos pacientes, quienes se enfrentan a una amputación mayor como única alternativa

La extracción de safena interna mediante la videoscopia para el uso en puentes arteriales / Internal saphenous vein extraction through videoscopy for arterial bypass

La cirugía vascular desarrolla, por un lado, las técnicas endovasculares para el tratamiento de la enfermedad arterial oclusiva y los aneurismas. Por otro lado, desarrolla técnicas de videoscopia, en el tratamiento de la hiperhidrosis palmar, algunas incursiones en el tratamiento de la enfermedad aortoilíaca y aneurisma de la aorta abdominal, además en el tratamiento de la insuficiencia venosa crónica con la ligadura sobfascial de las venas comunicantes y perforantes. Se crea el angioscopio, que en el caso de su uso en la revascularización infrainguinal, permite la ablación directa de las válvulas de la vena safena y el marcaje de sus colaterales en los puentes con vena in situ, técnica destinada a disminuir la incidencia de complicaciones de la herida operatoria. En este aspecto, se crea la técnica de la extracción de la vena safena mediante videoscopia asistida con el mismo objetivo y que empleamos en cuatro pacientes con diferentes tipos de enfermedad arterial oclusiva, destacándose la falta de complicaciones de la herida operatoria, la disminución del tiempo de hospitalización y el retorno a su vida cotidiana en forma expedita

Vectors to express foreign genes and techniques to monitor gene expression in Pseudomonads.

Improved tools for Pseudomonas research include small, broad-host-range vectors that allow regulated expression from the lac operon and T7 promoters whose biology is well understood and adaptable to many bacteria. To facilitate studies on gene regulation, tracking and monitoring of bacteria in diverse environments, and the construction of biosensors, various reporter genes with versatile assay formats have been developed that can be delivered on plasmid, transposon and integration-proficient vectors.

Triclosan: a widely used biocide and its link to antibiotics.

Triclosan is the active ingredient in a multitude of health care and consumer products with germicidal properties, which have flooded the market in recent years in response to the public's fear of communicable bacteria. Although originally thought to kill bacteria by attacking multiple cellular targets, triclosan was recently shown to target a specific bacterial fatty acid biosynthetic enzyme, enoyl-[acyl-carrier protein] reductase, in Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, as well as in the Mycobacteria. Triclosan resistance mechanisms include target mutations, increased target expression, active efflux from the cell, and enzymatic inactivation/degradation. These are the same types of mechanisms involved in antibiotic resistance and some of them account for the observed cross-resistance with antibiotics in laboratory isolates. Therefore, there is a link between triclosan and antibiotics, and the widespread use of triclosan-containing antiseptics and disinfectants may indeed aid in development of microbial resistance, in particular cross-resistance to antibiotics.