Service utilization and the life cycle of youth homelessness.

The study sought to describe service utilization patterns of homeless youth based on their life cycle stage. Ninety-nine percent of participants accessed services. Medical service utilization was highest among youth who were attempting to leave the street. Drug-related service utilization was lowest among youth most entrenched in street life.

Street-based STD testing and treatment of homeless youth are feasible, acceptable and effective.

PURPOSE: Current Centers for Disease Control (CDC) guidelines recommend that sexually transmitted disease (STD) screening measures for high-risk populations such as homeless youth prioritize testing in out-of-clinic settings and incorporate new approaches to STD eradication, such as field-delivered testing and treatment and patient-delivered partner therapy (PDPT). Our non-medically trained research staff offered field-based STI testing, field-delivered therapy, and PDPT to homeless youth in the context of a longitudinal study. METHODS: A total of 218 ethnically diverse (34% female) 15-24-year-old homeless youth recruited from street sites in San Francisco completed an audio computer-administered self-interview survey and provided a first-void urine sample for testing for chlamydia (CT) and gonorrhea (GC). Youth testing positive were offered field-delivered therapy and PDPT. A random subset of 157 youth was followed prospectively, of whom 110 (70%) were interviewed and 87 (55%) retested at six months. RESULTS: At baseline, 99% of youth in the study consented to STI testing, of whom 6.9% and .9% tested positive for CT and GC, respectively. Ninety-four percent of positive youth were treated, 50% within one week. The incidence rate for CT was 6.3 per 100 person-years (95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.3-18.4) and for GC was 4.2 per 100 person-years (95% CI: .5-15.2). None of the youth treated by study staff and tested six months later (n = 6) had CT or GC on follow-up testing (95% CI: 0-131.3). CONCLUSIONS: Field-delivered testing and field-delivered therapy are feasible, acceptable and effective interventions for the diagnosis and treatment of STDs in homeless youth. These measures along with PDPT may decrease rates of subsequent reinfection.

The impact of exposure to transphobia on HIV risk behavior in a sample of transgendered women of color in San Francisco.

This study examined the relationship between exposure to transphobia--societal discrimination and stigma of individuals who do not conform to traditional notions of gender--and risk for engaging in unprotected receptive anal intercourse (URAI) among 327 transgendered women of color. Overall, 24% of participants had engaged in URAI at least once in the past 30 days. Individuals who self-identified as pre-operative transsexual/transgendered women were significantly more likely than self-identified females to have engaged in URAI. Although exposure to transphobia was not independently related to URAI, an interaction between age and experiencing discrimination was observed. Among transgendered women 18-25 years old, those reporting higher levels of exposure to transphobia had a 3.2 times higher risk for engaging in URAI compared to those reporting lower levels. Findings from this study corroborate the importance of exposure to transphobia on HIV risk, particularly among transgendered young adults.

Early immune response and regulation of IL-2 receptor subunits.

Affymetrix oligonucleotide arrays were used to monitor expression of 8796 genes and probe sets in activated T-cells; analysis revealed that 217 genes were significantly upregulated within 4 h. Induced genes included transcription factors, cytokines and their receptor genes. Analysis by semi-quantitative RT-PCR confirmed the significant induction of IL-2, IL-2R(gamma) and IL-2R(alpha). Forty-eight of the 217 induced genes are known to or predicted to be regulated by a CRE promoter/enhancer. We found that T-cell activation caused a significant increase in CREB phosphorylation furthermore, inhibition of the PKC pathway by GF109203 reduced CREB activation by 50% and inhibition of the PKA pathway caused a total block of CREB phosphorylation and significantly reduced IFN(gamma), IL-2 and IL-2R(alpha) gene expression by approximately 40% (p<0.001). PKC(theta) plays a major role in T-cell activation: inhibition of PKC significantly reduced the expression of IFN(gamma), IL-2 and IL-2R(alpha). Since PKC blocked activation of CREB, we studied potential cross-talk between the PKC and the PKA/MAPK pathways, PMA-stimulated Jurkat cells were studied with specific signal pathway inhibitors. Extracellular signal-regulated kinase-2 (ERK2) pathway was found to be significantly activated greater than seven-fold within 30 min; however, there was little activation of ERK-1 and no activation of JNK or p38 MAPK. Inhibition of the PKA pathway, but not the PKC pathway, resulted in inhibition of ERK1/2 activation at all time points, inhibition of MEK1 and 2 significantly blocked expression of IL-2 and IL-2R(alpha). Gene expression of IL-2R(alpha) and IFN(gamma) was dependent on PKA in S49 wt cells but not in kin- mutants. Using gel shift analysis, we found that forskolin activation of T-cells resulted in activation of AP1 sites; this increase in nuclear extract AP1 was significantly blocked by MEK1 inhibitor U0126. Taken together, these results suggest that the PKA in addition to PKC and MAPK pathways plays a role in early T-cell activation and induction of IL-2, IL-2R(alpha) and IFN(gamma) gene expression.

Promoting health for transgender women: Transgender Resources and Neighborhood Space (TRANS) program in San Francisco.

Transgender women are at high risk for HIV, substance abuse, and mental health problems. We describe a health promotion intervention program tailored to transgender women in San Francisco. The program creates a safe space for providing transgender-sensitive education about HIV risk reduction, substance abuse prevention, and general health promotion. Transgender health educators conduct workshops and make referrals to appropriate substance abuse treatment programs and other services in the community. Evaluation findings indicate that this community-tailored intervention may be an effective way to reach transgender women and reduce sexual risk behaviors, depression, and perceived barriers to substance abuse treatment.