Possible Strategies to Reduce the Tumorigenic Risk of Reprogrammed Normal and Cancer Cells.

The reprogramming of somatic cells to pluripotent stem cells has immense potential for use in regenerating or redeveloping tissues for transplantation, and the future application of this method is one of the most important research topics in regenerative medicine. These cells are generated from normal cells, adult stem cells, or neoplastic cancer cells. They express embryonic stem cell markers, such as OCT4, SOX2, and NANOG, and can differentiate into all tissue types in adults, both in vitro and in vivo. However, tumorigenicity, immunogenicity, and heterogeneity of cell populations may hamper the use of this method in medical therapeutics. The risk of cancer formation is dependent on mutations of these stemness genes during the transformation of pluripotent stem cells to cancer cells and on the alteration of the microenvironments of stem cell niches at genetic and epigenetic levels. Recent reports have shown that the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) derived from human fibroblasts could be induced using chemicals, which is a safe, easy, and clinical-grade manufacturing strategy for modifying the cell fate of human cells required for regeneration therapies. This strategy is one of the future routes for the clinical application of reprogramming therapy. Therefore, this review highlights the recent progress in research focused on decreasing the tumorigenic risk of iPSCs or iPSC-derived organoids and increasing the safety of iPSC cell preparation and their application for therapeutic benefits.

Di-n-butyl phthalate promotes the neural differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells through neurogenic differentiation 1.

An understanding of the risk of gene deletion and mutation posed by endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) is necessary for the identification of etiological reagents for many human diseases. Therefore, the characterization of the genetic traits caused by developmental exposure to EDCs is an important research subject. A new regenerative approach using embryonic stem cells (ESCs) holds promise for the development of stem-cell-based therapies and the identification of novel therapeutic agents against human diseases. Here, we focused on the characterization of the genetic traits and alterations in pluripotency/stemness triggered by phthalate ester derivatives. Regarding their in vitro effects, we reported the abilities of ESCs regarding proliferation, cell-cycle control, and neural ectoderm differentiation. The expression of their stemness-related genes and their genetic changes toward neural differentiation were examined, which led to the observation that the tumor suppressor gene product p53/retinoblastoma protein 1 and its related cascades play critical functions in cell-cycle progression, cell death, and neural differentiation. In addition, the expression of neurogenic differentiation 1 was affected by exposure to di-n-butyl phthalate in the context of cell differentiation into neural lineages. The nervous system is one of the most sensitive tissues to exposure to phthalate ester derivatives. The present screening system provides a good tool for studying the mechanisms underlying the effects of EDCs on the developmental regulation of humans and rodents, especially on the neuronal development of ESCs.

Heterogeneity of Phase II Enzyme Ligands on Controlling the Progression of Human Gastric Cancer Organoids as Stem Cell Therapy Model.

Gastric cancer (GC) organoids are frequently used to examine cell proliferation and death as well as cancer development. Invasion/migration assay, xenotransplantation, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production were used to examine the effects of antioxidant drugs, including perillaldehyde (PEA), cinnamaldehyde (CA), and sulforaphane (SFN), on GC. PEA and CA repressed the proliferation of human GC organoids, whereas SFN enhanced it. Caspase 3 activities were also repressed on treatment with PEA and CA. Furthermore, the tumor formation and invasive activities were repressed on treatment with PEA and CA, whereas they were enhanced on treatment with SFN. These results in three-dimensional (3D)-GC organoids showed the different cancer development of phase II enzyme ligands in 2D-GC cells. ROS production and the expression of TP53, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor (NRF2), and Jun dimerization protein 2 were also downregulated on treatment with PEA and CA, but not SFN. NRF2 knockdown reversed the effects of these antioxidant drugs on the invasive activities of the 3D-GC organoids. Moreover, ROS production was also inhibited by treatment with PEA and CA, but not SFN. Thus, NRF2 plays a key role in the differential effects of these antioxidant drugs on cancer progression in 3D-GC organoids. PEA and CA can potentially be new antitumorigenic therapeutics for GC.

Jdp2 is a spatiotemporal transcriptional activator of the AhR via the Nrf2 gene battery.

BACKGROUND: Crosstalk between the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) signaling is called the "AhR-Nrf2 gene battery", which works synergistically in detoxification to support cell survival. Nrf2-dependent phase II gene promoters are controlled by coordinated recruitment of the AhR to adjacent dioxin responsive element (DRE) and Nrf2 recruitment to the antioxidative response element (ARE). The molecular interaction between AhR and Nrf2 members, and the regulation of each target, including phase I and II gene complexes, and their mediators are poorly understood. METHODS: Knockdown and forced expression of AhR-Nrf2 battery members were used to examine the molecular interactions between the AhR-Nrf2 axis and AhR promoter activation. Sequential immunoprecipitation, chromatin immunoprecipitation, and histology were used to identify each protein complex recruited to their respective cis-elements in the AhR promoter. Actin fiber distribution, cell spreading, and invasion were examined to identify functional differences in the AhR-Jdp2 axis between wild-type and Jdp2 knockout cells. The possible tumorigenic role of Jdp2 in the AhR-Nrf2 axis was examined in mutant Kras-Trp53-driven pancreatic tumors. RESULTS: Crosstalk between AhR and Nrf2 was evident at the transcriptional level. The AhR promoter was activated by phase I ligands such as 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) through the AhR-Jdp2-Nrf2 axis in a time- and spatial transcription-dependent manner. Jdp2 was a bifunctional activator of DRE- and ARE-mediated transcription in response to TCDD. After TCDD exposure, Jdp2 activated the AhR promoter at the DRE and then moved to the ARE where it activated the promoter to increase reactive oxygen species (ROS)-mediated functions such as cell spreading and invasion in normal cells, and cancer regression in mutant Kras-Trp53-driven pancreatic tumor cells. CONCLUSIONS: Jdp2 plays a critical role in AhR promoter activation through the AhR-Jdp2-Nrf2 axis in a spatiotemporal manner. The AhR functions to maintain ROS balance and cell spreading, invasion, and cancer regression in a mouse model of mutant Kras-Trp53 pancreatic cancer. These findings provide new insights into the roles of Jdp2 in the homeostatic regulation of oxidative stress and in the antioxidation response in detoxification, inflammation, and cancer progression.

Independent Signaling of Hepatoma Derived Growth Factor and Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha in Human Gastric Cancer Organoids Infected by Helicobacter pylori.

We prepared three-dimensional (3-D) organoids of human stomach cancers and examined the correlation between the tumorigenicity and cytotoxicity of Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori). In addition, the effects of hepatoma-derived growth factor (HDGF) and tumor necrosis factor (TNFα) on the growth and invasion activity of H. pylori-infected gastric cancer organoids were examined. Cytotoxin-associated gene A (CagA)-green fluorescence protein (GFP)-labeled H. pylori was used to trace the infection in gastric organoids. The cytotoxicity of Cag encoded toxins from different species of H. pylori did not affect the proliferation of each H. pylori-infected cancer organoid. To clarify the role of HDGF and TNFα secreted from H. pylori-infected cancer organoids, we prepared recombinant HDGF and TNFα and measured the cytotoxicity and invasion of gastric cancer organoids. HDGF controlled the growth of each organoid in a species-specific manner of H. pylori, but TNFα decreased the cell viability in H. pylori-infected cancer organoids. Furthermore, HDGF controlled the invasion activity of H. pylori-infected cancer organoid in a species-dependent manner. However, TNFα decreased the invasion activities of most organoids. We found different signaling of cytotoxicity and invasion of human gastric organoids in response to HDGF and TNFα during infection by H. pylori. Recombinant HDGF and TNFα inhibited the development and invasion of H. pylori-infected gastric cancer differently. Thus, we propose that HDGF and TNFα are independent signals for development of H. pylori-infected gastric cancer. The signaling of growth factors in 3-D organoid culture systems is different from those in two-dimensional cancer cells.

FOXM1-CD44 Signaling Is Critical for the Acquisition of Regorafenib Resistance in Human Liver Cancer Cells.

Regorafenib is a multikinase inhibitor that was approved by the US Food and Drug administration in 2017. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a small subset of cancer-initiating cells that are thought to contribute to therapeutic resistance. The forkhead box protein M1 (FOXM1) plays an important role in the regulation of the stemness of CSCs and mediates resistance to chemotherapy. However, the relationship between FOXM1 and regorafenib resistance in liver cancer cells remains unknown. We found that regorafenib-resistant HepG2 clones overexpressed FOXM1 and various markers of CSCs. Patients with hepatocellular carcinoma also exhibited an upregulation of FOXM1 and resistance to regorafenib, which were correlated with a poor survival rate. We identified a close relationship between FOXM1 expression and regorafenib resistance, which was correlated with the survival of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Thus, a strategy that antagonizes FOXM1-CD44 signaling would enhance the therapeutic efficacy of regorafenib in these patients.

Stem Cell Biomarkers and Tumorigenesis in Gastric Cancer.

Stomach cancer has a high mortality, which is partially caused by an absence of suitable biomarkers to allow detection of the initiation stages of cancer progression. Thus, identification of critical biomarkers associated with gastric cancer (GC) is required to advance its clinical diagnoses and treatment. Recent studies using tracing models for lineage analysis of GC stem cells indicate that the cell fate decision of the gastric stem cells might be an important issue for stem cell plasticity. They include leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein-coupled receptor 5 (Lgr5+), Cholecystokinin receptor 2 (Cckr2+), and axis inhibition protein 2 (Axin2+) as the stem cell markers in the antrum, Trefoil Factor 2 (TFF2+), Mist1+ stem cells, and Troy+ chief cells in the corpus. By contrast, Estrogen receptor 1 (eR1), Leucine-rich repeats and immunoglobulin-like domains 1 (Lrig1), SRY (sex determining region Y)-box 2 (Sox2), and B lymphoma Mo-MLV insertion region 1 homolog (Bmi1) are rich in both the antrum and corpus regions. These markers might help to identify the cell-lineage identity and analyze the plasticity of each stem cell population. Thus, identification of marker genes for the development of GC and its environment is critical for the clinical application of cancer stem cells in the prevention of stomach cancers.

Biomarkers of Cancer Stem Cells for Experimental Research and Clinical Application.

The use of biomarkers in cancer diagnosis, therapy, and prognosis has been highly effective over several decades. Studies of biomarkers in cancer patients pre- and post-treatment and during cancer progression have helped identify cancer stem cells (CSCs) and their related microenvironments. These analyses are critical for the therapeutic application of drugs and the efficient targeting and prevention of cancer progression, as well as the investigation of the mechanism of the cancer development. Biomarkers that characterize CSCs have thus been identified and correlated to diagnosis, therapy, and prognosis. However, CSCs demonstrate elevated levels of plasticity, which alters their functional phenotype and appearance by interacting with their microenvironments, in response to chemotherapy and radiotherapeutics. In turn, these changes induce different metabolic adaptations of CSCs. This article provides a review of the most frequently used CSCs and stem cell markers.

Generation of Human Stomach Cancer iPSC-Derived Organoids Induced by Helicobacter pylori Infection and Their Application to Gastric Cancer Research.

There is considerable cellular diversity in the human stomach, which has helped to clarify cell plasticity in normal development and tumorigenesis. Thus, the stomach is an interesting model for understanding cellular plasticity and for developing prospective anticancer therapeutic agents. However, many questions remain regarding the development of cancers in vivo and in vitro in two- or three-dimensional (2D/3D) cultures, as well as the role of Helicobacter pylori (H. p.) infection. Here, we focus on the characteristics of cancer stem cells and their derived 3D organoids in culture, including the formation of stem cell niches. We define the conditions required for such organoid culture in vitro and examine the ability of such models for testing the use of anticancer agents. We also summarize the signaling cascades and the specific markers of stomach-cancer-derived organoids induced by H. p. infection, and their stem cell niches.

Dimethyl sulfoxide stimulates the AhR-Jdp2 axis to control ROS accumulation in mouse embryonic fibroblasts.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-binding protein that responds to environmental aromatic hydrocarbons and stimulates the transcription of downstream phase I enzyme-related genes by binding the cis element of dioxin-responsive elements (DREs)/xenobiotic-responsive elements. Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) is a well-known organic solvent that is often used to dissolve phase I reagents in toxicology and oxidative stress research experiments. In the current study, we discovered that 0.1% DMSO significantly induced the activation of the AhR promoter via DREs and produced reactive oxygen species, which induced apoptosis in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). Moreover, Jun dimerization protein 2 (Jdp2) was found to be required for activation of the AhR promoter in response to DMSO. Coimmunoprecipitation and chromatin immunoprecipitation studies demonstrated that the phase I-dependent transcription factors, AhR and the AhR nuclear translocator, and phase II-dependent transcription factors such as nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2 (Nrf2) integrated into DRE sites together with Jdp2 to form an activation complex to increase AhR promoter activity in response to DMSO in MEFs. Our findings provide evidence for the functional role of Jdp2 in controlling the AhR gene via Nrf2 and provide insights into how Jdp2 contributes to the regulation of ROS production and the cell spreading and apoptosis produced by the ligand DMSO in MEFs.

Translational models of 3-D organoids and cancer stem cells in gastric cancer research.

It is postulated as a general concept of cancer stem cells (CSCs) that they can produce cancer cells overtly and repopulate cancer progenitor cells indefinitely. The CSC niche is part of a specialized cancer microenvironment that is important to keep the phenotypes of CSCs. Stem cell- and induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived organoids with genetic manipulation are beneficial to the investigation of the regulation of the microenvironment of CSCs. It would be useful to assess the efficiency of the cancer microenvironment on initiation and progression of cancers. To identify CSCs in cancer tissues, normal cell organoids and gastric cancer organoids from the cancerous areas, as well as iPSCs, were established several years ago. However, many questions remain about the extent to which these cultures recapitulate the development of the gastrointestinal tract and the mechanism of Helicobacter pylori-induced cancer progression. To clarify the fidelity of human organoid models, we have noted several key issues for the cultivation of, and differences between, normal and cancerous organoids. We developed precise culture conditions for gastric organoids in vitro to improve the accuracy of the generation of organoid models for therapeutic and medical applications. In addition, the current knowledge on gastrointestinal CSC research, including the topic of CSC markers, cancer cell reprogramming, and application to target cancer cell plasticity through niches, should be reinforced. We discuss the progression of cancers derived from human gastric organoids and the identification of CSCs.

Therapeutic Strategies Targeting Tumor Suppressor Genes in Pancreatic Cancer.

The high mortality of pancreatic cancer is attributed to the insidious progression of this disease, which results in a delayed diagnosis and advanced disease stage at diagnosis. More than 35% of patients with pancreatic cancer are in stage III, whereas 50% are in stage IV at diagnosis. Thus, understanding the aggressive features of pancreatic cancer will contribute to the resolution of problems, such as its early recurrence, metastasis, and resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Therefore, new therapeutic strategies targeting tumor suppressor gene products may help prevent the progression of pancreatic cancer. In this review, we discuss several recent clinical trials of pancreatic cancer and recent studies reporting safe and effective treatment modalities for patients with advanced pancreatic cancer.

Deletion of Jdp2 enhances Slc7a11 expression in Atoh-1 positive cerebellum granule cell progenitors in vivo.

BACKGROUND: The cerebellum is the sensitive region of the brain to developmental abnormalities related to the effects of oxidative stresses. Abnormal cerebellar lobe formation, found in Jun dimerization protein 2 (Jdp2)-knockout (KO) mice, is related to increased antioxidant formation and a reduction in apoptotic cell death in granule cell progenitors (GCPs). Here, we aim that Jdp2 plays a critical role of cerebellar development which is affected by the ROS regulation and redox control. OBJECTIVE: Jdp2-promoter-Cre transgenic mouse displayed a positive signal in the cerebellum, especially within granule cells. Jdp2-KO mice exhibited impaired development of the cerebellum compared with wild-type (WT) mice. The antioxidation controlled gene, such as cystine-glutamate transporter Slc7a11, might be critical to regulate the redox homeostasis and the development of the cerebellum. METHODS: We generated the Jdp2-promoter-Cre mice and Jdp2-KO mice to examine the levels of Slc7a11, ROS levels and the expressions of antioxidation related genes were examined in the mouse cerebellum using the immunohistochemistry. RESULTS: The cerebellum of Jdp2-KO mice displayed expression of the cystine-glutamate transporter Slc7a11, within the internal granule layer at postnatal day 6; in contrast, the WT cerebellum mainly displayed Sla7a11 expression in the external granule layer. Moreover, development of the cerebellar lobes in Jdp2-KO mice was altered compared with WT mice. Expression of Slc7a11, Nrf2, and p21Cip1 was higher in the cerebellum of Jdp2-KO mice than in WT mice. CONCLUSION: Jdp2 is a critical regulator of Slc7a11 transporter during the antioxidation response, which might control the growth, apoptosis, and differentiation of GCPs in the cerebellar lobes. These observations are consistent with our previous study in vitro.

WLS/wntless is essential in controlling dendritic cell homeostasis via a WNT signaling-independent mechanism.

We propose that beyond its role in WNT secretion, WLS/GPR177 (wntless, WNT ligand secretion mediator) acts as an essential regulator controlling protein glycosylation, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis, and dendritic cell (DC)-mediated immunity. WLS deficiency in bone marrow-derived DCs (BMDCs) resulted in poor growth and an inability to mount cytokine and T-cell responses in vitro, phenotypes that were irreversible by the addition of exogenous WNTs. In fact, WLS was discovered to integrate a protein complex in N-glycan-dependent and WLS domain-selective manners, comprising ER stress sensors and lectin chaperones. WLS deficiency in BMDCs led to increased ER stress response and macroautophagy/autophagy, decreased calcium efflux from the ER, and the loss of CALR (calreticulin)-CANX (calnexin) cycle, and hence protein hypo-glycosylation. Consequently, DC-specific wls-null mice were unable to develop both Th1-, Th2- and Th17-associated responses in the respective autoimmune and allergic disease models. These results suggest that WLS is a critical chaperone in maintaining ER homeostasis, glycoprotein quality control and calcium dynamics in DCs.Abbreviations: ATF6: activating transcription factor 6; ATG5: autophagy related 5; ATG12: autophagy related 12; ATG16L1: autophagy related 16 like 1; ATP2A1/SERCA1: ATPase sarcoplasmic/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ transporting 1; BALF: bronchoalveolar lavage fluid; BFA: brefeldin A; BMDC: bone marrow-derived dendritic cell; CALR: calreticulin; CANX: calnexin; CCL2/MCP-1: C-C motif chemokine ligand 2; CNS: central nervous system; CT: C-terminal domain; DTT: dithiothreitol; DNAJB9/ERDJ4: DnaJ heat shock protein family (Hsp40) member B9; EAE: experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis; EIF2A/eIF2α: eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2A; EIF2AK3/PERK: eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 alpha kinase 3; ERN1/IRE1: endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to nucleus signaling 1; GFP: green fluorescent protein; HSPA5/GRP78/BiP: heat shock protein A5; IFNA: interferon alpha; IFNAR1: interferon alpha and beta receptor subunit 1; IFNB: interferon beta; IFNG/INFγ: interferon gamma; IFNGR2: interferon gamma receptor 2; IL6: interleukin 6; IL10: interleukin 10; IL12A: interleukin 12A; IL23A: interleukin 23 subunit alpha; ITGAX/CD11c: integrin subunit alpha X; ITPR1/InsP3R1: inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor type 1; MAP1LC3B/LC3B: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3 beta; OVA: ovalbumin; PIK3C3/VPS34: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase catalytic subunit type 3; PLF: predicted lipocalin fold; PPP1R15A/GADD34: protein phosphatase 1 regulatory subunit 15A; RYR1/RyanR1: ryanodine receptor 1, skeletal muscle; SD: signal domain; TGFB/TGF-ß: transforming growth factor beta family; Th1: T helper cell type 1; Th17: T helper cell type 17; TM: tunicamycin; TNF/TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor; UPR: unfolded protein response; WLS/wntless: WNT ligand secretion mediator.

Redox control in the pathophysiology of influenza virus infection.

Triggered in response to external and internal ligands in cells and animals, redox homeostasis is transmitted via signal molecules involved in defense redox mechanisms through networks of cell proliferation, differentiation, intracellular detoxification, bacterial infection, and immune reactions. Cellular oxidation is not necessarily harmful per se, but its effects depend on the balance between the peroxidation and antioxidation cascades, which can vary according to the stimulus and serve to maintain oxygen homeostasis. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) that are generated during influenza virus (IV) infection have critical effects on both the virus and host cells. In this review, we outline the link between viral infection and redox control using IV infection as an example. We discuss the current state of knowledge on the molecular relationship between cellular oxidation mediated by ROS accumulation and the diversity of IV infection. We also summarize the potential anti-IV agents available currently that act by targeting redox biology/pathophysiology.

Author Correction: Jdp2-deficient granule cell progenitors in the cerebellum are resistant to ROS-mediated apoptosis through xCT/Slc7a11 activation.

An amendment to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Prevention of tumor risk associated with the reprogramming of human pluripotent stem cells.

Human pluripotent embryonic stem cells have two special features: self-renewal and pluripotency. It is important to understand the properties of pluripotent stem cells and reprogrammed stem cells. One of the major problems is the risk of reprogrammed stem cells developing into tumors. To understand the process of differentiation through which stem cells develop into cancer cells, investigators have attempted to identify the key factors that generate tumors in humans. The most effective method for the prevention of tumorigenesis is the exclusion of cancer cells during cell reprogramming. The risk of cancer formation is dependent on mutations of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes during the conversion of stem cells to cancer cells and on the environmental effects of pluripotent stem cells. Dissecting the processes of epigenetic regulation and chromatin regulation may be helpful for achieving correct cell reprogramming without inducing tumor formation and for developing new drugs for cancer treatment. This review focuses on the risk of tumor formation by human pluripotent stem cells, and on the possible treatment options if it occurs. Potential new techniques that target epigenetic processes and chromatin regulation provide opportunities for human cancer modeling and clinical applications of regenerative medicine.

Jdp2-deficient granule cell progenitors in the cerebellum are resistant to ROS-mediated apoptosis through xCT/Slc7a11 activation.

The Jun dimerization protein 2 (Jdp2) is expressed predominantly in granule cell progenitors (GCPs) in the cerebellum, as was shown in Jdp2-promoter-Cre transgenic mice. Cerebellum of Jdp2-knockout (KO) mice contains lower number of Atoh-1 positive GCPs than WT. Primary cultures of GCPs from Jdp2-KO mice at postnatal day 5 were more resistant to apoptosis than GCPs from wild-type mice. In Jdp2-KO GCPs, the levels of both the glutamate‒cystine exchanger Sc7a11 and glutathione were increased; by contrast, the activity of reactive oxygen species (ROS) was decreased; these changes confer resistance to ROS-mediated apoptosis. In the absence of Jdp2, a complex of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 1 (p21Cip1) and Nrf2 bound to antioxidant response elements of the Slc7a11 promoter and provide redox control to block ROS-mediated apoptosis. These findings suggest that an interplay between Jdp2, Nrf2, and p21Cip1 regulates the GCP apoptosis, which is one of critical events for normal development of the cerebellum.

PCAF-mediated acetylation of ISX recruits BRD4 to promote epithelial-mesenchymal transition.

Epigenetic regulation is important for cancer progression; however, the underlying mechanisms, particularly those involving protein acetylation, remain to be fully understood. Here, we show that p300/CBP-associated factor (PCAF)-dependent acetylation of the transcription factor intestine-specific homeobox (ISX) regulates epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and promotes cancer metastasis. Mechanistically, PCAF acetylation of ISX at lysine 69 promotes the interaction with acetylated bromodomain-containing protein 4 (BRD4) at lysine 332 in tumor cells, and the translocation of the resulting complex into the nucleus. There, it binds to promoters of EMT genes, where acetylation of histone 3 at lysines 9, 14, and 18 initiates chromatin remodeling and subsequent transcriptional activation. Ectopic ISX expression enhances EMT marker expression, including TWIST1, Snail1, and VEGF, induces cancer metastasis, but suppresses E-cadherin expression. In lung cancer, ectopic expression of PCAF-ISX-BRD4 axis components correlates with clinical metastatic features and poor prognosis. These results suggest that the PCAF-ISX-BRD4 axis mediates EMT signaling and regulates tumor initiation and metastasis.

Potential application of cell reprogramming techniques for cancer research.

The ability to control the transition from an undifferentiated stem cell to a specific cell fate is one of the key techniques that are required for the application of interventional technologies to regenerative medicine and the treatment of tumors and metastases and of neurodegenerative diseases. Reprogramming technologies, which include somatic cell nuclear transfer, induced pluripotent stem cells, and the direct reprogramming of specific cell lineages, have the potential to alter cell plasticity in translational medicine for cancer treatment. The characterization of cancer stem cells (CSCs), the identification of oncogene and tumor suppressor genes for CSCs, and the epigenetic study of CSCs and their microenvironments are important topics. This review summarizes the application of cell reprogramming technologies to cancer modeling and treatment and discusses possible obstacles, such as genetic and epigenetic alterations in cancer cells, as well as the strategies that can be used to overcome these obstacles to cancer research.