Musical Sophistication and Multilingualism: Effects on Arcuate Fasciculus Characteristics.

The processing of auditory stimuli which are structured in time is thought to involve the arcuate fasciculus, the white matter tract which connects the temporal cortex and the inferior frontal gyrus. Research has indicated effects of both musical and language experience on the structural characteristics of the arcuate fasciculus. Here, we investigated in a sample of n = 84 young adults whether continuous conceptualizations of musical and multilingual experience related to structural characteristics of the arcuate fasciculus, measured using diffusion tensor imaging. Probabilistic tractography was used to identify the dorsal and ventral parts of the white matter tract. Linear regressions indicated that different aspects of musical sophistication related to the arcuate fasciculus' volume (emotional engagement with music), volumetric asymmetry (musical training and music perceptual abilities), and fractional anisotropy (music perceptual abilities). Our conceptualization of multilingual experience, accounting for participants' proficiency in reading, writing, understanding, and speaking different languages, was not related to the structural characteristics of the arcuate fasciculus. We discuss our results in the context of other research on hemispheric specializations and a dual-stream model of auditory processing.

The Effect of Metacognitive Intervention on the Listening Performance and Metacognitive Awareness of High- and Low-Working Memory Capacity EFL Learners.

EFL listening comprehension has been a stark challenge for language learners, but little is known about the combined effect of individual differences, such as working memory capacity, and metacognitive intervention. Thus, the present experimental study investigates the effect of metacognitive intervention on the listening performance and metacognitive awareness of high- and low-WMC EFL learners. For this purpose, Oxford Placement Tests were distributed among 120 male Iranian EFL learners, of which 94 were identified as intermediate. Then, backward visual digit span tests were administered to measure their working memory capacity. Based on the median of all scores, 80 learners were selected and randomly assigned to two experimental groups and two control groups each with 20 participants. Next, their performance on the International English Language Testing System and the Metacognitive Awareness Listening Questionnaire was measured before and after the 8-session metacognitive intervention. Results showed that high-WMC experimental learners had a higher gain with a large effect size in terms of listening performance compared with all the other groups. In addition, the experimental group learners reported the significantly higher use of the metacognitive strategies with a moderate effect size. Interestingly, low-WMC learners' listening performance and metacognitive awareness also improved as a result of the intervention. Our findings bear pedagogical significance in that individual differences in WMC should be considered more in both EFL language classes and the future line of research involving the metacognitive intervention.

Examining the role and graduate preparation of bilingual school psychologists in early childhood settings.

Emergent Bilinguals (EBs) comprise nearly a third of children enrolled in early childhood classrooms across the United States. Unfortunately, EB populations are often met with barriers that limit their opportunity to thrive in the school setting. Bilingual school psychologists (BSPs) are uniquely positioned to provide culturally and linguistically responsive academic and behavioral services to these young students. However, to date, there are no empirical studies exploring the graduate preparation received by early childhood BSPs and the services provided to young EBs. The present study involved the development and administration of a national survey examining the role of BSPs in early childhood settings. A convergent mixed-methods approach was used to analyze survey results from 97 participants. The results indicated that most early childhood BSPs felt unprepared by their graduate programs, although most indicated receiving early childhood preparation and almost half indicated receiving bilingual preparation. Four qualitative themes also emerged from the data. Implications for future research and preparation are discussed.

Introduction to the Forum: Native Language, Dialect, and Foreign Accent in Dysarthria.

This timely collection is an international effort to serve as a foundation to encourage research that offers insights into the interaction between language variation and motor speech disorders. Specifically, this forum aimed to provide a platform that (a) explores and demonstrates the role of language variation in the manifestation of dysarthria, (b) considers language variation in clinical assessment and management, and (c) promotes awareness of diverse language backgrounds of people with dysarthria. The forum contains six articles, spanning a variety of research designs (cross-sectional, pre- and post-treatment), kinds of articles (tutorial, research article, commentary), and a range of languages from around the world (English, French, Korean Portuguese, Spanish).

The influence of enjoyment, boredom, and burnout on EFL achievement: Based on latent moderated structural equation modeling.

In recent years, the boom in the field of positive psychology in second language acquisition research has seen an increasing number of scholars focusing on the individual well-being of second language learners alongside their learning effectiveness. Despite this growing interest, there is a need to further investigate the specific emotional factors influencing academic achievement in foreign language learning. This study investigates the impact of three emotions-enjoyment, boredom, and burnout-on academic achievement, and the moderating role of academic buoyancy. Data were collected from 563 college English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) students from China's mainland using latent moderated structural equation modeling with Mplus. The results of the latent bivariate correlation analysis showed significant correlations between EFL learning emotions, academic buoyancy, and test performance. In the latent moderated structural equations model, enjoyment and burnout predicted test performance. Moreover, academic buoyancy moderated the relationships between enjoyment and test performance, and between burnout and test performance. EFL test performance was highest when enjoyment and buoyancy were both high, or when burnout and buoyancy were both low. These findings highlight the importance of fostering positive emotions and resilience in language learners to enhance their academic performance, offering valuable insights for educators and policymakers aiming to improve foreign language education.

Emotion regulation elicits cross-linguistically shared and language-specific forms of linguistic distancing.

Cognitively reappraising a stressful experience-reinterpreting the situation to blunt its emotional impact-is effective for regulating negative emotions. English speakers have been shown to engage in linguistic distancing when reappraising, spontaneously using words that are more abstract or impersonal. Across two preregistered studies (N = 299), we investigated whether such shifts in language use generalize to Spanish, a language proposed to offer unique tools for expressing psychological distance. Bilingual speakers of Spanish and English and a comparison group of English monolinguals transcribed their thoughts in each of their languages while responding naturally to negative images or reappraising them. Reappraisal shifted markers of psychological distance common to both languages (e.g., reduced use of "I"/"yo"), as well as Spanish-specific markers (e.g., greater use of "estar": "to be" for temporary states). Whether these linguistic shifts reflected successful emotion regulation depended on language experience: in exploratory analyses, the common markers were more strongly linked to reduced negative affect for late than early Spanish learners, and one Spanish-specific marker ("estar") also predicted reduced negative affect for early learners. Our findings suggest that people distance their language in both cross-linguistically shared and language-specific ways when regulating their emotions.

Decomposing Variation in Vocabulary and Listening Comprehension Task Performance in Spanish and English Into Person, Ecological, and Assessment Differences for Spanish-English Bilingual Children in the United States.

PURPOSE: We investigated the contributions of person, ecological, and assessment characteristics to one's performance on vocabulary and listening comprehension tasks in English and Spanish. Person characteristics included English learner status, ecological characteristics included instructional program enrollment (bilingual vs. English immersion) and poverty status, and assessment characteristics included the language of assessment (Spanish vs. English) and linguistic grain size (vocabulary vs. listening comprehension). METHOD: Data were from 208 Spanish-English emergent bilingual children in Grade 1 in the United States and were analyzed using explanatory item response models. RESULTS: Substantial variance in the tasks across both languages was attributable to the random effects of assessment/item (74%) and person (26%). English learner status was a significant student predictor of language performance, and the instructional program was a significant ecological predictor of language performance. Regarding assessment characteristics, both the language of assessment and linguistic grain size explained the variance in performance. There were no differences in performance on English assessments between children in the Spanish-English bilingual program and children in the English immersion program. However, on the Spanish tasks, children in the bilingual program outperformed their peers in the English immersion program. CONCLUSION: These findings highlight the importance of considering not only person/child characteristics but also ecological and assessment characteristics for Spanish-English bilingual children's performance on oral language tasks. SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL: https://doi.org/10.23641/asha.26972749.

English Vowel Perception in Spanish-English Bilingual Preschoolers: Multiple-Talker Input Is Only Beneficial for Children With High Language Exposure Levels.

PURPOSES: This study examines English vowel perception in Spanish-English bilingual preschoolers, comparing bilinguals' perception patterns to those of monolinguals and examining how child internal (age) and external variables (input quantity and input diversity) predict perceptual performance. METHOD: Sixty children between 3;6 and 5;6 (years;months) of age participated in the study, 28 of whom were Spanish-English bilinguals and 32 English monolinguals. Perception was assessed through a forced-choice minimal-pair identification task in which children heard synthesized audio stimuli (i.e., "sheep" and "ship") that varied systematically along the /i-ɪ/ continuum and were asked to match them with one of two pictures. The data were analyzed with Bayesian mixed-effects logistic regression analyses, modeling responses as a function of continuum step, language background (monolingual or bilingual), age, English exposure (i.e., input quantity), and number of English input providers (i.e., input diversity). RESULTS: The results indicate that, despite displaying nonnative English stop voicing perception in a previous study, the same bilingual children showed English /i-ɪ/ perception patterns that did not differ from those of monolinguals. While age did not predict vowel perception, input quantity and diversity jointly interacted to moderate how well children perceived the /i-ɪ/ contrast. Specifically, diverse input promoted perceptual performance in children who received high levels of English exposure-and who presumably had more advanced English language skills, whereas it limited perceptual performance in children with more limited English exposure and skills. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that bilingual children can show monolingual-like perception patterns for some sounds while displaying nontarget perception for others. This is the first study to demonstrate that language exposure mediates the role of input diversity on speech sound development, suggesting that varied input can be more or less beneficial for speech sound development based on the learner's language learning stage.

Inhibitory Control Partially Mediates the Relationship between Metalinguistic Awareness and Perspective-Taking.

Increased metalinguistic awareness (MLA) has been associated with improved performance in tasks of theory of mind; researchers have proposed that individuals with increased MLA, such as bilinguals, rely on metalinguistic skills when completing tasks that require taking other people's perspective into account compared to other individuals who mostly rely on general executive control to complete the same tasks. MLA would, therefore, act as a less effortful path to understanding other perspectives, especially when they differ from one's own. However, the evidence underlying this claim is scant and largely limited to children's theoretical frameworks. In this study, we investigated whether individual differences in MLA predict perspective-taking Theory of Mind above and beyond inhibitory control in a sample of diverse adults across a wide range of linguistic, socioeconomic, and cognitive factors. Bootstrapped mediation analyses revealed that inhibitory control partially, but not fully, mediated the relationship between MLA and perspective-taking. In addition, when differences in language, education and culture were controlled for, the effects of both MLA and inhibitory control were reduced. Overall, the findings emphasize the need to consider multivariate approaches towards understanding the mechanisms underlying theory of mind.

The Use of Language Sample Analysis to Differentiate Developmental Language Disorder From Typical Language in Bilingual Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

PURPOSE: Language sample analysis (LSA) is a commonly recommended method of assessment for bilingual children. This systematic review and meta-analysis provides a comprehensive overview of the literature on the use of LSA to differentiate between developmental language disorder (DLD) and typical language (TL) in bilingual children. METHOD: We conducted a search of several large electronic databases along with forward and backward searches and applied abstract and full-text screening procedures to identify all relevant studies. We then estimated standardized mean differences, representing the ability of LSA to differentiate between DLD and TL, using multilevel model and subgroup and moderator analyses to identify characteristics of LSA that may be associated with differences in effect size magnitude. We conducted assessments of publication bias and risk of bias by examining quality indicators for each study. RESULTS: The search yielded 35 articles that met the inclusion criteria. Participants ranged in age from 2;0 (years;months) to 11;9, with over 40 languages represented. Across studies, the pooled standardized mean difference indicated that children with DLD performed 0.78 SD lower on LSA measures than those with TL. Measures of morphosyntactic accuracy exhibited the largest pooled effect size. Elicitation method, language of task, and age were not associated with differences in effect size. DISCUSSION: Results of this study provide evidence of the clinical utility of LSA in differentiating between DLD and TL in bilingual children. Further research is needed to examine classification accuracy as well as task characteristics that may improve its diagnostic utility.

Transformer-based approach for symptom recognition and multilingual linking.

This paper presents a transformer-based approach for symptom Named Entity Recognition (NER) in Spanish clinical texts and multilingual entity linking on the SympTEMIST dataset. For Spanish NER, we fine tune a RoBERTa-based token-level classifier with Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory and conditional random field layers on an augmented train set, achieving an F1 score of 0.73. Entity linking is performed via a hybrid approach with dictionaries, generating candidates from a knowledge base containing Unified Medical Language System aliases using the cross-lingual SapBERT and reranking the top candidates using GPT-3.5. The entity linking approach shows consistent results for multiple languages of 0.73 accuracy on the SympTEMIST multilingual dataset and also achieves an accuracy of 0.6123 on the Spanish entity linking task surpassing the current top score for this subtask. Database URL: https://github.com/svassileva/symptemist-multilingual-linking.

More foreign-accented but more comprehensible: Attrition and amelioration of L1 speech in proficient L2 learners.

Background: There is an increasing interest in cross-linguistic influences of the second language (L2) on the first (L1), but its communicative impact remains to be elucidated. This study investigates how L2 learners' L1 pronunciation is perceived as foreign-accented and (in) comprehensible as a function of their L2 learning experience and proficiency levels. Methods: Read speech of 154 L1 Japanese learners of L2 English in the J-AESOP corpus was examined, where approximately one-third of them had lived in English-speaking countries and the rest had never lived outside of Japan. Their L1 speech was rated by another group of native Japanese listeners for accentedness and comprehensibility (from October 25, 2022 to August 20, 2023), while their L2 speech was previously rated by native American English listeners for nativelikeness or proficiency. The speakers' vowel acoustics were also examined. Results: More proficient L2 speakers were perceived as more foreign-accented in their L1, but only if they had lived overseas; their length of residence abroad predicted the degree of perceived accentedness. In contrast, more proficient L2 speakers were consistently perceived as more comprehensible in the L1, regardless of prior overseas experience. Acoustic analyses indicated that perceived accentedness is associated with a clockwise chain shift of all vowel categories in the vowel space. It was also revealed that the dispersion, rather than compactness, of vowel production contributed to perceived comprehensibility, although the degree of L1 vowel dispersion did not predict L2 proficiency. Conclusions: The overall results suggest two main conclusions. First, perceptible L1 foreign accent likely results from L1 disuse rather than L2 interference, thereby L1 pronunciation differs from native norms at a system-wide rather than category-specific level. Second, L2 learning has a positive influence on perceived L1 comprehensibility, rather than individuals with clearer and more comprehensible L1 speech being inherently better L2 learners.

Towards building multilingual language model for medicine.

The development of open-source, multilingual medical language models can benefit a wide, linguistically diverse audience from different regions. To promote this domain, we present contributions from the following: First, we construct a multilingual medical corpus, containing approximately 25.5B tokens encompassing 6 main languages, termed as MMedC, enabling auto-regressive domain adaptation for general LLMs; Second, to monitor the development of multilingual medical LLMs, we propose a multilingual medical multi-choice question-answering benchmark with rationale, termed as MMedBench; Third, we have assessed a number of open-source large language models (LLMs) on our benchmark, along with those further auto-regressive trained on MMedC. Our final model, MMed-Llama 3, with only 8B parameters, achieves superior performance compared to all other open-source models on both MMedBench and English benchmarks, even rivaling GPT-4. In conclusion, in this work, We present a large-scale corpus, a benchmark and a series of models to support the development of multilingual medical LLMs.

Cognitive Fluency in L2: The Effect of Automatic and Controlled Lexical Processing on Speech Rate.

The fluency of second language (L2) speech can be influenced by L2 proficiency, but also by differences in the efficiency of cognitive operations and personal speaking styles. The nature of cognitive fluency is still, however, little understood. Therefore, we studied the cognitive fluency of Finnish advanced students of English (N = 64) to understand how the efficiency of cognitive processing influences speech rate. Cognitive fluency was operationalised as automaticity of lexical access (measured by rapid word recognition) and attention control (measured by the Stroop task). The tasks were conducted in both L1 (Finnish) and L2 (English) to examine the (dis)similarity of processing in the two languages. Speech rate in a monologue task was used as the dependent measure of speaking performance. The results showed that after controlling for the L1 speech rate and L1 cognitive fluency, the L2 attention control measures explained a small amount of additional variance in L2 speech rate. These results are discussed in relation to the cognitive fluency framework and general speaking proficiency research.

Brain correlates of attentional load processing reflect degree of bilingual engagement: Evidence from EEG.

The present study uses electroencephalography (EEG) with an N-back task (0-, 1-, and 2-back) to investigate if and how individual bilingual experiences modulate brain activity and cognitive processes. The N-back is an especially appropriate task given recent proposals situating bilingual effects on neurocognition within the broader attentional control system (Bialystok and Craik, 2022). Beyond its working memory component, the N-Back task builds in complexity incrementally, progressively taxing the attentional system. EEG, behavioral and language/social background data were collected from 60 bilinguals. Two cognitive loads were calculated: low (1-back minus 0-back) and high (2-back minus 0-back). Behavioral performance and brain recruitment were modeled as a function of individual differences in bilingual engagement. We predicted task performance as modulated by bilingual engagement would reflect cognitive demands of increased complexity: slower reaction times and lower accuracy, and increase in theta, decrease in alpha and modulated N2/P3 amplitudes. The data show no modulation of the expected behavioral effects by degree of bilingual engagement. However, individual differences analyses reveal significant correlations between non-societal language use in Social contexts and alpha in the low cognitive load condition and age of acquisition of the L2/2L1 with theta in the high cognitive load. These findings lend some initial support to Bialystok and Craik (2022), showing how certain adaptations at the brain level take place in order to deal with the cognitive demands associated with variations in bilingual language experience and increases in attentional load. Furthermore, the present data highlight how these effects can play out differentially depending on cognitive testing/modalities - that is, effects were found at the TFR level but not behaviorally or in the ERPs, showing how the choice of analysis can be deterministic when investigating bilingual effects.

Frontal EEG alpha asymmetry predicts foreign language anxiety while speaking a foreign language.

Engaging in dialog requires interlocutors to coordinate sending and receiving linguistic signals to build a discourse based upon interpretations and perceptions interconnected with a range of emotions. Conversing in a foreign language may induce emotions such as anxiety which influence the quality communication. The neural processes underpinning these interactions are crucial to understanding foreign language anxiety (FLA). Electroencephalography (EEG) studies reveal that anxiety is often displayed via hemispheric frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA). To examine the neural mechanisms underlying FLA, we collected self-reported data on the listening and speaking sections of the Second language skill specific anxiety scale (L2AS) over behavioral, cognitive, and somatic domains and recorded EEG signals during participation in word chain turn-taking activities in first (L1, Chinese) and second (L2, English) languages. Regression analysis showed FAA for the L2 condition was a significant predictor primarily of the behavioral and somatic domains on the L2AS speaking section. The results are discussed along with implications for improving communication during L2 interactions.

The Effect of Age of First Exposure on Vocabulary, Mean Length of Utterance, Morphosyntactic Accuracy, and Semantic and Sentence-Level Patterns in the First 2 Years of French Second-Language Learning by Preschool- to Adolescent-Age Mandarin Speakers.

BACKGROUND: Bilingual assessment is particularly difficult in the very first period of children's second language (L2) exposure. This exploratory, longitudinal study examined L2 learning after 1 and 2 years of L2 exposure by young immigrants and how it is affected by their age at first exposure to the L2 (AoE). METHOD: Participants were 18 immigrants ranging in age from 2;11 to 14;2 (years;months), all within their first year in Montreal at Time 1, enrolled in a French school or day care, and from a Mandarin first language background. Participants were tested again a year later. Measures included receptive and expressive French vocabulary tests and conversational language samples analyzed using traditional measures of mean length of utterance (MLU) and morphological accuracy as well as novel measures of semantic and sentence-level patterns. RESULTS: Performance was relatively high already at Time 1 and increased significantly at Time 2 in both vocabulary and MLU. At Time 2, vocabulary scores were below normative values, whereas MLU was within expected values relative to monolingual and simultaneous bilinguals for the majority of the participants. However, higher MLUs were accompanied by more instances of both semantic errors and creative semantic strategies. French performance was strongly related to AoE; with amount of exposure equivalent, older participants outperformed the younger ones on MLU and vocabulary. Semantic errors and creative uses were strongly predicted by AoE; however, morphological accuracy and number of agrammatical utterances were not. CONCLUSIONS: This initial period of French learning involved a rapid growth spurt for most of the participants. We argue that the pattern observed, particularly among the older children, constitutes an early stage of L2 learning characterized by long utterances that are also frequently hard to understand as speakers encounter challenges and use creative strategies in their attempt to convey meaning. Comparison with normative reference bases for monolinguals and bilinguals with greater cumulative L2 exposure who have similar MLUs should be done with much caution during this early period.

Teacher support and its impact on ESL student engagement in blended learning: The mediating effects of L2 grit and intended effort.

BACKGROUND: In the shifting paradigm of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instruction, blended learning has become increasingly prevalent, necessitating understanding factors that drive student engagement. The research delves into the intricate interaction between teacher support and student engagement, postulating that L2 grit and intended effort function as mediators within this dynamic. METHODS: We employed a cross-sectional design involving a sample of 712 EFL students engaged in blended learning courses. Through quantitative analysis, we measured the constructs of teacher support, L2 grit, intended effort, and student engagement with validated scales. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was applied to investigate the relationships between these variables and to test the hypothesized mediation effects. RESULTS: The results demonstrated that teacher support correlated with higher levels of student engagement. L2 grit and intended effort were identified as significant mediators in this relationship. L2 grit acted as a bridge between teacher support and student engagement, reflecting the essential role of perseverance and passion for long-term language learning objectives. Intended effort further mediated this relationship, indicating that supportive teacher behaviors foster greater student effort, enhancing overall engagement. The study also revealed a chain mediation effect, suggesting that teacher support sequentially enhances L2 grit, which in turn increases intended effort, cumulatively leading to improved student engagement. CONCLUSION: The findings offer evidence of the central role of teacher support in bolstering student engagement through the development of L2 grit and the enhancement of intended effort. This paper underlines the necessity of a supportive learning environment in blended EFL settings and presents a novel sequential mediation framework that can guide educators, curriculum designers, and policymakers in creating more effective learning experiences.