Baobab-Fruit Shell and Fibrous Filaments Are Sources of Antioxidant Dietary Fibers.

Since 2008, baobab-fruit dried pulp is listed as an ingredient on the European Union's Novel Food Catalogue. By pulp production, 80% of the baobab fruit is discarded, forming side streams, namely, shell, fibrous filaments, and seeds. This study explored pulp and side-stream functional properties, including total dietary fiber (TDF), total antioxidant capacity (TAC), polyphenols, and water- (WHC) and oil-holding capacities (OHC), along with endocannabinoids (ECs) and N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) in pulp, seeds, and seed oil. Shell excelled in TDF (85%), followed by fibrous filaments (79%), and showed the highest soluble and direct TAC (72 ± 0.7 and 525 ± 1.0 µmol eq. Trolox/g, respectively). Pulp was the richest in polyphenols, followed by shell, fibrous filaments, and seeds. Quercetin predominated in shell (438.7 ± 2.5 µg/g); whereas epicatechin predominated in pulp (514 ± 5.7 µg/g), fibrous filaments (197.2 ± 0.1 µg/g), and seeds (120.1 ± 0.6 µg/g); followed by procyanidin B2 that accounted for 26-40% of total polyphenols in all the products. WHC and OHC ranged between 2-7 g H2O-Oil/g, with fibrous filaments showing the highest values. ECs were not found, whereas NAEs were abundant in seed oil (2408.7 ± 11.1 ng/g). Baobab shell and fibrous filaments are sources of polyphenols and antioxidant dietary fibers, which support their use as functional food ingredients.

Adansonia digitata L. fruit shell extract alleviates lead-induced neurotoxicity in mice via modulation of oxidative stress and a possible chelating activity.

BACKGROUND: Lead is a ubiquitous environmental heavy metal known to induce neurotoxicity. It has been postulated that substance with high antioxidant capacity could alleviate lead-induced neurotoxicity. Adansonia digitata fruit shell extract (ADFS) has been reported to have high phenolic contents and exerts antioxidant activity. This study investigated the effects of Adansonia digitata fruit shell extract on lead-induced neurotoxicity in mice. METHODS: Male balb/c mice (n = 7) were administered with Pb-acetate (50 mg/kg) 30 mins before ADFS (250 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg) or succimer (50 mg/kg) per orally for 28 days. Motor activities were evaluated on days 29 and 30 through horizontal bar and open field tests respectively. Further, spectrophotometry, atomic absorption spectrophotometry and haematoxylin and eosin staining were carried-out to determine the expression of oxidative stress biomarkers, level of lead concentration in the brain and histology of the cerebellum respectively. RESULTS: Lead acetate exposure significantly (p < 0.05) induced motor deficits in horizontal bar test and open field test, caused oxidative stress, high concentration of lead in the brain as well as histological aberration in the cerebellum. ADFS significantly (p < 0.05) reversed the motor deficits evident by increased muscle strength and number of lines crossed. Further, ADFS significantly reversed oxidative stress evident by increased levels of SOD, CAT and GSH and decreased level of MDA. There was also significant (p < 0.05) decrease in brain lead concentration as well as reduced cerebellar cells death. CONCLUSION: Findings suggest that ADFS attenuated motor deficits via inhibition of oxidative stress and chelating activity which is comparable to succimer. Hence, ADFS should be explored for possible development of chelating agent against lead and other heavy metals toxicity.

Potential valorisation of baobab (Adansonia digitata) seeds as a coffee substitute: Insights and comparisons on the effect of roasting on quality, sensory profiles, and characterisation of volatile aroma compounds by HS-SPME/GC-MS.

The seeds of Africa's majestic baobab are often discarded or poorly utilized. Few studies explored its potential as a coffee substitute, while the key volatile compounds are still unknown. These compounds were hypothesized to be responsible for baobab's sensory acceptance. In this study, the physicochemical, sensory, and key volatile composition of brews from coffee beans and baobab seeds subjected to different roasting conditions were reported. Roasting increases pH while reducing acidity, total soluble solids, lightness (L*), redness/greenness (a*), and yellowness/blueness (b*) in coffee and baobab brews. Phenolic contents increased significantly (p < 0.05) with increased roasting intensity in baobab while degrading in coffee. Significant variability of volatile composition existed among coffee and baobab matrices and the roasting conditions. Nevertheless, the presence of several key coffee odorants in baobab from pyrazines, phenols, and furans chemical families, owing to their odour active value ≥ 1, likely contributed to its sensory acceptance.

Baobab pulp authenticity and quality control by multi-imaging high-performance thin-layer chromatography.

Globalization of trade and increasing demand for baobab fruit pulp powder (Adansonia digitata) has led to more adulteration incidence with physically similar products, e.g. sifted cereal flours. In this study, 135 baobab samples drawn from trees in Kitui and Kilifi (Kenya) and North and South Kordofan (Sudan) were used as the reference and compared with adulterated (with 10-30% sifted rice, maize and wheat flours) baobab samples using multi-imaging by high-performance thin-layer chromatography. The ethanol - water extracts were separated on a normal phase. Any differences were detected via multi-imaging (UV/Vis/FLD) including diphenylamine alanine o-phosphoric acid, p-anisaldehyde sulfuric acid and p-amino benzoic acid reagents. Raffinose was identified as a marker compound for cereal-based adulteration. The method accuracy (recovery of 95%) and detection from 10-30% flour addition onwards are sufficient to curb economically motivated adulteration, to control product quality and to ensure consumer protection for local and international trade.

Adansonia digitata L. (Baobab Fruit) Effect on Postprandial Glycemia in Healthy Adults: A Randomized Controlled Trial.

Baobab fruits have been traditionally used in Africa due to their therapeutic properties attributed to their high polyphenol content. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of baobab fruit on postprandial glycaemia in healthy adults and to measure its bioactive compounds and antioxidant activity. The study (NCT05140629) was conducted on 31 healthy subjects. The participants were randomly allocated in the control group (oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT); n = 16) and in the intervention group (OGTT, followed by administration of 250 mL baobab aqueous extract (BAE); n = 15). Total phenols, proanthocyanins, hydrolyzable tannins, and antioxidant activity (FRAP, DPPH, ABTS, and inhibition of O2•- and NO• methods) were quantified. Repeated measures ANOVA of mixed type and independent samples t-test were used. Glycemia incremental area under the curve (p = 0.012) and glucose maximum concentration (p = 0.029) was significantly lower in the intervention group compared to the control group. The BAE revealed high total contents of phenols, proanthocyanins, and hydrolyzable tannins, as well as a strong capacity to scavenge superoxide anions and nitric oxide radicals and a high antioxidant activity. In conclusion, this study encourages the use of this food component as a promising source of natural antioxidants and a hypoglycemic agent under glucose load acute conditions.

Potential of moringa leaf and baobab fruit food-to-food fortification of wholegrain maize porridge to improve iron and zinc bioaccessibility.

Food-to-food fortification (FtFF) with moringa leaf (iron source) and/or baobab fruit (citric acid and ascorbic acid source) (each 13-15 g/100 g porridge dry basis (db)) was studied to improve iron and zinc nutritive quality in African-type wholegrain maize-based porridges using in vitro dialysability assay. Moringa FtFF decreased percentage and total bioaccessible iron and zinc, by up to 84% and 45%, respectively. Moringa was very high in calcium, approximately 3% db and calcium-iron-phytate complexes inhibit iron bioavailability. Baobab FtFF increased percentage and total bioaccessible iron and zinc, especially in porridges containing carrot + mango (ß-carotene source) and conventionally fortified with FeSO4, by up to 111% and 60%, respectively. The effects were similar to those when ascorbic and citric acids were added as mineral absorption enhancers. While moringa FtFF could be inhibitory to iron and zinc bioavailability in cereal-based porridges, baobab fruit FtFF could improve their bioavailability, especially in combination with conventional iron fortification.

Not all species will migrate poleward as the climate warms: The case of the seven baobab species in Madagascar.

It is commonly accepted that species should move toward higher elevations and latitudes to track shifting isotherms as climate warms. However, temperature might not be the only limiting factor determining species distribution. Species might move to opposite directions to track changes in other climatic variables. Here, we used an extensive occurrence data set and an ensemble modelling approach to model the climatic niche and to predict the distribution of the seven baobab species (genus Adansonia) present in Madagascar. Using climatic projections from three global circulation models, we predicted species' future distribution and extinction risk for 2055 and 2085 under two representative concentration pathways (RCPs) and two dispersal scenarios. We disentangled the role of each climatic variable in explaining species range shift looking at relative variable importance and future climatic anomalies. Four baobab species (Adansonia rubrostipa, Adansonia madagascariensis, Adansonia perrieri¸ and Adansonia suarezensis) could experience a severe range contraction in the future (>70% for year 2085 under RCP 8.5, assuming a zero-dispersal hypothesis). For three out of the four threatened species, range contraction was mainly explained by an increase in temperature seasonality, especially in the North of Madagascar, where they are currently distributed. In tropical regions, where species are commonly adapted to low seasonality, we found that temperature seasonality will generally increase. It is, thus, very likely that many species in the tropics will be forced to move equatorward to avoid an increase in temperature seasonality. Yet, several ecological (e.g., equatorial limit, or unsuitable deforested habitat) or geographical barriers (absence of lands) could prevent species to move equatorward, thus increasing the extinction risk of many tropical species, like endemic baobab species in Madagascar.

Acylserotonins - a new class of plant lipids with antioxidant activity and potential pharmacological applications.

During analysis of components of baobab (Adansonia digitata) seed oil, several new fluorescent compounds were detected in HPLC chromatograms that were not found previously in any seed oils investigated so far. After preparative isolation of these compounds, structural analysis by NMR spectroscopy, UHPLC-HR-MS, GC-FID and spectroscopic methods were applied and allowed identification of these substances as series of N-acylserotonins containing saturated C22 to C26 fatty acids with minor contribution of C27 to C30 homologues. The main component was N-lignocerylserotonin and the content of odd carbon-atom-number fatty acids was unusually high among the homologues. The suggested structure of the investigated compounds was additionally confirmed by their chemical synthesis. Synthetic N-acylserotonins showed pronounced inhibition of membrane lipid peroxidation of liposomes prepared from chloroplast lipids, especially when the peroxidation was initiated by a water-soluble azo-initiator, AIPH. Comparative studies of the reaction rate constants of the N-acylserotonins and tocopherols with a stable radical 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) in solvents of different polarity revealed that N-acylserotonins showed similar activity to δ-tocopherol in this respect. The described compounds have been not reported before either in plants or in animals. This indicates that we have identified a new class of plant lipids with antioxidant properties that could have promising pharmacological activities.

RNA sequencing identified novel target genes for Adansonia digitata in breast and colon cancer cells.

Adansonia digitata exhibits numerous beneficial effects. In the current study, we investigated the anti-cancer effects of four different extracts of A. digitata (polar and non-polar extracts of fruit powder and fibers) on the proliferation of human colon cancer (HCT116), human breast cancer (MCF-7), and human ovarian cancer (OVCAR-3 and OVCAR-4) cell lines. RNA sequencing revealed the influence of the effective A. digitata fraction on the gene expression profiles of responsive cells. The results indicated that only the polar extract of the A. digitata fibers exhibited anti-proliferative activities against HCT116 and MCF-7 cells, but not ovarian cancer cells. Moreover, the polar extract of the fibers resulted in the modulation of the expression of multiple genes in HCT116 and MCF-7 cells. We propose that casein kinase 2 alpha 3 (CSNK2A3) is a novel casein kinase 2 (CSNK2) isoform in HCT116 cells and report, for the first time, the potential involvement of FYVE, RhoGEF, and PH domain-containing 3 (FGD3) in colon cancer. Together, these findings provide evidence supporting the anti-cancer potential of the polar extract of A. digitata fibers in this experimental model of breast and colon cancers.

Western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) access a nutritionally balanced, high energy, and abundant food, baobab (Adansonia digitata) fruit, with extractive foraging and reingestion.

Intrinsic to several hypotheses explaining the evolution of foraging behavior complexity, such as proto-tool use, is the assumption that more complex ingestive behaviors are adaptations allowing individuals to access difficult to procure but nutritionally or energetically rewarding foods. However, nutritional approaches to understanding this complexity have been underutilized. The goal of this study was to evaluate potential nutritional determinants of two unusual foraging behaviors, fruit cracking with anvils and seed reingestion, by adult male western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Fongoli, Senegal during the baobab (Adansonia digitata) fruit season. We examined these behaviors in relation to nutrient and energy intake, and compared macronutrient and energy concentrations found in baobab fruits to other plant foods. Adult males ingested at least 31 distinct foods from 23 plant species. Baobab fruit comprised the majority of daily energy intake (68 ± 34%, range: 0%-98%). The energetic concentration of baobab fruit varied by phenophase and part ingested, with ripe and semi-ripe fruit ranking high in energy return rate. Males preferred ripe and semi-ripe baobab fruit but unripe fruit intake was higher overall. The seed kernels were high in protein and fat relative to fruit pulp, and these kernels were easier to access during the unripe stage. During the ripe stage, seed kernels were accessible by reingestion, after the seed coat was softened during gut passage. In addition to providing macronutrients and energy, baobab fruit was a relatively abundant food source. We conclude that baobab pulp and seed are high quality foods at Fongoli during the baobab season because they are nutritionally balanced, high in energy, and relatively abundant in the environment. These nutritional and abundance characteristics may explain, in part, why these chimpanzees use anvils and reingestion to access a mechanically challenging food.

High-intensity ultrasound processing of baobab fruit pulp: Effect on quality, bioactive compounds, and inhibitory potential on the activity of α-amylase and α-glucosidase.

Effect of high-intensity ultrasound (HIU) compared with thermal treatments on baobab fruit pulp (BFP) quality and bioactive properties were investigated. HIU treatments, particularly at intensities of 687.5 W/cm2 for 5 min, and 344 W/cm2 for 15 min significantly (p < 0.05) increased the cloudiness index, ascorbic acid (AA) retention, total phenolic and flavonoid contents, and antioxidant capacity besides a more potent α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition relative to thermally treated samples. Moreover, the physicochemical parameters, colour index, and browning index were maintained with HIU besides lower 5-hydroxymethylfurfural values than thermal processing. HPLC analysis revealed that the content of most phenolic compounds was the highest in HIU treatments besides a 235-256% increase in procyanidin C1 compared with control samples. The AA retention following HIU treatments was 87.62-102.86% compared to 30.47-61.90% in thermally treated samples. Our analyses portrayed ultrasound as a feasible alternative to conventional thermal processing of BFP.

Comprehensive metabolomic, lipidomic and pathological profiles of baobab (Adansonia digitata) fruit pulp extracts in diabetic rats.

Baobab fruit pulp Adansonia digitata (AD) has received attention due to its numerous nutritional and medicinal values. In the current study, tentative identification was performed due to limited information available on its phytochemical composition. Phytochemicals from AD fruit pulp were obtained using successive organic solvent fractionation. The LC-MSMS analysis led to identification of 91 metabolites from methanol, butanol and ethyl acetate extracts. Moreover, 20 compounds were identified in the petroleum ether extract based on high resolution ion masses. In vitro antidiabetic and antioxidant properties of selected extracts were investigated using enzyme activity and the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method, respectively. Biological screening of the antidiabetic effects of target extracts was performed against streptozotocin-induced diabetes in experimental animals, following daily oral treatment for 3 successive weeks. Serum glucose, insulin, adiponectin, superoxide dismutase (SOD), lipid peroxide, cholesterol and HDL levels were measured. Finally, histopathological and immunohistochemical examinations of pancreas were carried out. Results revealed that animal groups treated daily with butanol (BuOH) and petroleum ether extracts of AD (oil) exhibited a significant improvement in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism as well as antioxidant effect. Both extracts revealed superior effects with respect to the total (TT) and ethyl acetate (EtOAc) extracts. Histopathological and immunohistochemical findings supported these results, showing marked protection of the pancreas. Thus, baobab oil and butanolic extract of the fruit pulp protected animals against STZ-induced diabetic changes, in addition to attenuation of lipid peroxidation, hypercholesterolemia and oxidation.

Xylogalacturonan-enriched pectin from the fruit pulp of Adansonia digitata: Structural characterization and antidepressant-like effect.

The low methyl-esterified and acetylated xylogalacturonan (DM 20 %, DA 2 %, Mw ∼ 58 kDa) was isolated by water extraction for 4 h × 2 at 50 °C (yield 23 %) from the pulp of baobab fruit (Adansonia digitata L.). Subsequent tightening of the conditions for water extraction by mean increasing the temperature to 70 °C and time to 12 h led to the co-extraction of small amounts of starch components and RG I with xylogalacturonan. Structural analysis (DEAE-cellulose ion-exchange chromatography, HPSEC, monosaccharide analysis, NMR spectroscopy) revealed that about 12 mol. % of 1,4-linked α-GalpA residues were substituted by single ß-Xylp residues at the O-3 position. The xylogalacturonan was found to possess an antidepressant-like effect in mice. The study offers using the baobab fruit as a rich source of soluble dietary fiber - water-soluble pectin with beneficial physiological effect.

Effect of Methanol Extract of Baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) Fruit Pulp on NG-Nitro-L-Arginine Methyl Ester (L-NAME) Induced Hypertension in Rats.

INTRODUCTION: Most available drugs used for management of hypertension have presented a plethora of challenges which genuinely called for development of therapies from natural sources. AIM: This study investigated the effect of methanol extract of Adansonia digitata fruit (MEADF) pulp on NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) induced hypertension in rats. METHODS: Fourty eight (48) wistar rats divided into six (6) groups (eight rats each) were employed. The induction of hypertension was achieved using L-NAME (40mg//kg body weight) by oral gavages. The induced rats were treated with MEADF pulp (200 and 400 mg/kg body weight) and Ramipril (10 mg/kg) and the remaining three groups serve as control. Serum haemodynamic and biochemical modifiable parameters were determined using standard assay procedures RESULTS: Administration of MEADF to the rats exerted a dose-dependent lowering effect on the elevated systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, mean arterial pressure and heart rate towards the normal physiological threshold. At 400 mg/kg of MEADF, there was significant (p < 0.05) reduction in serum lipid profile and biomarkers associated with endothelial dysfunction [angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) activity], inflammation (C-reactive protein and interleukin-1ß), oxidative stress (malondialdehyde) and cardiac injury (creatine kinase-MB and lactate dehydrogenase activities). However, serum concentrations of nitric oxide, high density lipoprotein cholesterol, total bilirubin and albumin were not significantly (p < 0.05) different from those found in normal control group. CONCLUSION: This study therefore demonstrates that MEADF possesses an in vivo ACE inhibitory activity, hypotensive potential and the ability to avert further degeneration of biochemical and physiological upsets associated with L-NAME induced hypertension.

Aqueous extract of Adansonia digitata prevents Cadmium Chloride-induced testicular damage in Wistar Rats.

OBJECTIVES: The role of aqueous extract of Adansonia digitata was investigated against cadmium chloride-induced testicular damage in Wistar Rats. METHODS: Thirty (30) male Wistar Rats weighing (150-170) were divided into six groups (n=5). Group A served as control and received oral administration of phosphate buffer saline; group B received 800 mg/kg A. digitata only; group C were injected intraperitoneally with single dose 2 mg/kg b.w cadmium chloride; group D were injected intraperitoneally with single dose 2 mg/kg b.w cadmium chloride and treated with 800 mg/kg aqueous extract of A. digitata; group E received 300 mg/kg vitamin E only; group F were injected intraperitoneally with single dose 2 mg/kg b.w cadmium chloride and treated with 300 mg/kg vitamin E. After 21 days, the animals were sacrificed by cervical dislocation, the testes were excised fixed in Bouins fluids for histological analysis and the other homogenized in 5% sucrose solution for determination of tissue malondialdehyde (MDA) and antioxidant enzyme activity, biochemical assay. RESULTS: The group treated with cadmium chloride plus A. digitata caused significant decrease in MDA levels with significant increase (p<0.05) in antioxidant activities and biochemical enzymes when compared to cadmium chloride only group. CONCLUSIONS: Aqueous extract of A. digitata appears to have ameliorative effect against cadmium chloride-induced testicular damage. This could be attributed to the presence of polyphenolic compound.

Aqueous Extract of Adansonia digitata reversed Cotton Seed Extract-Induced Testicular Damage in Wistar rats.

OBJECTIVE: Infertility is the inability of sexually active couples without using birth control to get pregnant after one year of uninterrupted sexual intercourse. Cotton Seed Extract (CSE) has been linked to male infertility by causing oxidative damage to the testes due to the action of its active component, Gossypol. Adansonia digitata has been known to have many medically useful properties, including antioxidant effects. This study aimed at evaluating the effects of Adansonia digitata on Cottonseed extract-induced testicular damage. METHODS: Forty (40) Adult male Wistar rats were divided into 8 groups of five rats per group (n=5). Group 1 served as the control and received 0.5 ml of phosphate buffer orally; Group 2 received 800 mg/kg b.wt A. digitata orally; Group 3 received 300 mg/kg b.wt Vitamin E only orally; Group 4 received 60 mg/kg b.wt CSE intraperitoneally; Group 5 received 20 mg/kg b.wt CSE intraperitoneally; Group 6 received 60 mg/kg b.wt CSE intraperitoneally and 800 mg/kg b.wt A. digitata orally; Group 7 received 20 mg/kg b.wt CSE intraperitoneally and 800 mg/kg b.wt A. digitata orally; Group 8 received 60 mg/kg b.wt CSE intraperitoneally and 300 mg/kg Vit. E orally. It was administered for 21 days. The testes and epididymis were dissected following abdominal incision. The epididymis was used for semen analysis while the testes was processed for histological analysis and biochemical assay. All the data was analyzed by ANOVA, using the SPSS version 17.0 software. A p<0.05 was considered significant. RESULTS: CSE administration caused significant (p<0.05) decrease in sperm count, found in the group treated with CSE only. However, the Administration of A. digitata caused significant increase (p<0.05) in sperm count, G6PDH, LDH, GPx and SOD; however, MDA levels were decreased. Histological observations showed a decrease in the number of Spermatogonia and differentiating cells in the testes of rats treated with CSE. CONCLUSIONS: The results obtained revealed the antioxidant ability of A. digitata in counter-acting the testicular damage caused by CSE administration.

In vitro bioaccessibility and bioavailability of iron from fenugreek, baobab and moringa.

Iron deficiency anaemia (IDA) is a common nutritional disorder worldwide. Sustainable food-based approaches are being advocated to use high and bioavailable dietary iron sources to prevent iron deficiency. The study investigated the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of iron from some plant products. Total iron levels in the samples were measured by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). Fractionation of the iron from the digested extracts was carried out by centrifugation and ultrafiltration. Iron bioavailability was determined using an in vitro simulated peptic-pancreatic digestion, followed by measurement of ferritin in Caco-2 cells. The highest amount of bioaccessible iron was obtained from moringa leaves (9.88% ± 0.45 and 8.44 ± 0.01 mg/100 g), but the highest percentage bioavailability was from baobab fruit pulp (99.7% ± 0.13 and 1.74 ± 0.01 mg/100 g) respectively. All the plant products, except for baobab, significantly inhibited iron uptake from FeSO4 and FAC, with fenugreek sprout being the most inhibitory.

Can the supplementary consumption of baobab (Adansonia digitata L.) fruit pulp improve the hemoglobin levels and iron status of schoolchildren in Kenya? Findings of a randomized controlled intervention trial.

PURPOSE: In the rural Kenyan diet, the bioavailability of iron is low and predisposes the population to iron deficiency. Fruit pulp of the indigenous baobab tree contains significant amounts of vitamin C, which enhances non-heme iron bioavailability. We studied the impact of baobab fruit pulp (BFP) consumption on the hemoglobin (Hb) and iron status of Kenyan schoolchildren. METHODS: The single-blind randomized controlled intervention trial was implemented daily among apparently healthy schoolchildren aged 6-12 years with hemoglobin level < 12.2 g/dl. For 12 weeks, children in the intervention group (n = 29) received a drink with BFP, while the control group (n = 29) received an isoenergy drink without BFP. At baseline and endline, blood samples were taken. RESULTS: The development of hemoglobin, ferritin (FER) and soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR) did not differ significantly between the intervention and control groups. However, in the intervention group, Hb levels improved slightly (2.2%), while they decreased slightly (1.2%) in the control group. Levels of geometric means of sTfR remained almost unchanged (0.7%) in the intervention group and slightly worsened (2.7%) in the control group. In both the groups, geometric mean of FER levels decreased, yet to a smaller extent in the intervention (17.3%) than in the control (26.0%) group. CONCLUSION: Even though no significant effects of BFP could be detected in this study, the identification of products such as BFP remains pertinent to help improve non-heme iron absorption in the most vulnerable populations.

Structure and rheology of pectic polysaccharides from baobab fruit and leaves.

Linkage patterns and relaxation dynamics of baobab (Adansonia digitata) polysaccharides have been investigated by means of linkage analysis and rheometry. The fruit polysaccharide was mostly xylogalacturonan, with co-extracted α-glucan. The leaf polysaccharide consists predominantly of two domains, one branched at O-4 of the →2)-Rhap-(1→ residues and another branched at O-3 of the →4)-GalpA-(1→ backbone to single GlcpA-(1→ residues. Master curves of viscoelasticity of fruit polysaccharides manifested strong pH-dependency. At pH below the dissociation constant of galacturonic acid, dispersions showed liquid-like behaviour. In contrast, at neutral pH, a weak gel network formation was observed that destabilised rapidly under the influence of flow fields. The present work identifies xylogalacturonans from baobab fruit as polysaccharides with unique rheological characteristics that may point to new directions in food and pharmaceutical formulation.

Functional principles of baobab fruit pedicels - anatomy and biomechanics.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Fruit pedicels have to deal with increasing loads after pollination due to continuous growth of the fruits. Thus, they represent interesting tissues from a mechanical as well as a developmental point of view. However, only a few studies exist on fruit pedicels. In this study, we unravel the anatomy and structural-mechanical relationships of the pedicel of Adansonia digitata, reaching up to 90 cm in length. METHODS: Morphological and anatomical analyses included examination of stained cross-sections from various positions along the stalk as well as X-ray microtomography and scanning electron microscopy. For mechanical testing, fibre bundles derived from the mature pedicels were examined via tension tests. For establishing the structural-mechanical relationships, the density of the fibre bundles as well as their cellulose microfibril distribution and chemical composition were analysed. KEY RESULTS: While in the peduncle the vascular tissue and the fibres are arranged in a concentric ring-like way, this organization shifts to the polystelic structure of separate fibre bundles in the pedicel. The polystelic pedicel possesses five vascular strands that consist of strong bast fibre bundles. The fibre bundles have a Young's modulus of up to 5 GPa, a tensile strength of up to 400 MPa, a high density (>1 g cm-3) and a high microfibril angle of around 20°. CONCLUSIONS: The structural arrangement as well as the combination of high density and high microfibril angle of the bast fibre bundles are probably optimized for bearing considerable strain in torsion and bending while at the same time allowing for carrying high-tension loads.