Intoxicaciones por drogas de abuso: características diferenciales en población VIH / Patients with drug-abuse poisoning with and without HIV infection: differential characteristics

Objetivo: La población VIH, consumidora de drogas de abuso (DA), tiene mayor morbimortalidad en relación con los no consumidores y no VIH. Se investiga si existen diferencias en las intoxicaciones agudas (IA) por DA, en pacientes VIH y no VIH atendidos en los servicios de urgencias hospitalarios (SUH), y se identifican factores independientes de mal pronóstico, definido por ingreso o fallecimiento. Método: Estudio bicéntrico y observacional de 1 de enero de 2017 al 31 de diciembre de 2021. Se incluyeron pacientes VIH y no VIH atendido en dos SUH por intoxicación por DA. Se recogieron variables demográficas y la sustancia consumida. La variable de resultado principal fue mal pronóstico, definido como ingreso o muerte a los 30 días. Resultados: Se recogieron 1.132 pacientes. La edad media de los pacientes VIH fue 39 ± 10 años, y 33 ± 10 años para los no VIH. En la población VIH predominaron los opiáceos 279 (85,3%) (ninguno de ellos estaba en tratamiento sustitutivo con metadona), la cocaína 226 (30,9%) y las anfetaminas 153 (69,1%), mientras que en la no VIH predominaron la cocaína 372 (47,2%) y el cannabis 238 (33,8%). El etanol se asoció con otras DA en 387 pacientes. El análisis multivariado mostró que las únicas variables independientes de mal pronóstico fueron el VIH [OR 2,19 (1,29-3,11), p < 0,003], la edad [OR 1,20 (1,01-1,05), p < 0,003], y la IA por benzodiacepinas (BDZ) [OR 3,48 (2,14-5,66), p < 0,001], con un área bajo la curva de la característica operativa del receptor de este modelo de 0,717. Conclusiones: Existen diferencias en las características de las IA en pacientes VIH. La infección VIH, la edad y el consumo de BZD son factores independientes de mal pronóstico en las IA. (AU)

Objective: Persons with HIV infection who use illicit drugs have higher morbidity and mortality rates than nonusers with or without HIV infection. The objetive were to detect differences between acute poisoning from illicit drugs in patients with and without HIV infection who are attended in hospital emergency departments, and to identify independent factors associated with a worse prognosis, defined by hospital admission or death. Methods: Observational study in 2 hospitals between January 2017 and 31 December 2021. Included were patients with acute illicit drug poisoning with and without HIV infection. Results: Information for 1132 patients was included. The mean (SD) ages of patients with and without HIV infection, respectively, were 38.9 (9.6) years and 32.6 (10.4) years. In patients with HIV, the main drugs used were opioids (279 [85.3%]), cocaine (226 [69.1%]), and amphetamines (153 [46.8%]. None in this group were on methadone substitution therapy for opioid addiction. In patients without HIV infection the main drugs were cocaine (372 [47.2%]) and cannabis (238 [33.8%]). Alcohol was used along with illicit drugs in 387 cases. Multivariate analysis showed that the only variables independently associated with a poor prognosis were HIV infection (odds ratio [OR], 2.19 [1.29-3.11], P < .003), age (OR, 1.20 [1.01-1.05], P < .003), and acute poisoning from benzodiazepines (OR, 3.48 [2.14-5.66], P < .001). The area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of the model was 0.717. Conclusion: Certain characteristics distinguish the illicit drug use of patients with HIV infection. HIV infection, age, and the use of benzodiazepines are independently associated with a poor prognosis in acute poisonings. (AU)

Cocaína adulterada con opioides en la provincia de Buenos Aires: análisis epidemiológico para pensar una nueva política de drogas / Cocaine adulterated with opioids in the province of Buenos Aires: epidemiological analysis to think about a New Drug Policy

INTRODUCCIÓN: En febrero de 2022 se produjo en la provincia de Buenos Aires un brote de intoxicación por consumo de cocaína adulterada con opioides. El objetivo de este trabajo fue describir la población afectada, las acciones realizadas desde el Ministerio de Salud de la Provincia de Buenos Aires a partir de la detección de la problemática y analizar las modalidades de abordaje de los consumos respecto de los paradigmas de atención desde la perspectiva de la salud y las normativas vigentes en la temática en Argentina. MÉTODOS: Se realizó un estudio descriptivo transversal con enfoque cuantitativo. Se estudió a todas las personas que presentaban síntomas compatibles con cuadros de intoxicación por consumo de cocaína adulterada y que consultaron en establecimientos de salud de la provincia de Buenos Aires en febrero de 2022. RESULTADOS: Se notificaron 124 casos, el rango etario fue de 18 a 57 años, y el 84,5% fueron informados como sexo legal masculino. El 66% requirió internación hospitalaria, y 19 personas fallecieron. Los resultados de laboratorio confirmaron que la sustancia consumida era cocaína con carfentanilo. DISCUSIÓN: La identificación de opioides es un fenómeno novedoso en la región, que invita a problematizar los marcos normativos y los paradigmas de abordaje vigentes para superar visiones que reducen la problemática a los aspectos inherentes a los individuos y sus conductas respecto del consumo de sustancias psicoactivas.

[A case of poisoning by oral lime sulfur].

Lime sulfur is a common bactericide with strong alkalinity, and is highly corrosive to humans and animals. It is rare for lime sulfur poisoning clinically. This article discusses the clinical manifestations of a patient who was poisoned by oral lime sulfur. After the poisoning, the mucosa of the lips and pharynx broke, fever, and pulmonary inflammation quickly appeared. The pulmonary CT showed slight interstitial changes in both lungs. Through high flow oxygen inhalation, fluid infusion, drainage, maintenance of water and electrolyte balance, protection of important organ functions, and other symptomatic support and treatment, as well as control of blood pressure, blood sugar, maintenance of circulatory function and other targeted measures, the patient's condition gradually improved.

Pediatric Poisonings Associated With Ingestion of Marijuana Products.

BACKGROUND: Rapid changes in marijuana legislation have resulted in a wider array of products containing tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) to be legally manufactured and sold, such as edibles in the form of gummy candies and cookies. These products may be enticing to young children who mistake them for typical snack foods. OBJECTIVE: Our aim was to describe emergency department (ED) visits due to unintentional ingestion of cannabis products among children aged birth to 11 years old in the United States. METHODS: Using the 2019-2020 National Electronic Injury Surveillance System, U.S. ED records for poisoning events related to ingestion of THC were examined. Descriptive epidemiologic analyses were conducted to provide national estimates of the pediatric visits. RESULTS: An estimated 1245 pediatric patient visits related to unintentional marijuana poisoning occurred. Most poisonings involved edible marijuana products and most patients were admitted to the hospital. CONCLUSIONS: Cannabis edibles present a challenge with regard to prevention of poisonings among the pediatric population. Legislation or company policies pertaining to packaging and manufacturing are needed to limit the attraction of toddlers and young children, as well reliance on parents and caregivers for safe storage of the products. Continued and expanded public health education campaigns are warranted.

Acute Pesticide Poisoning in Tobacco Farming, According to Different Criteria.

BACKGROUND: Brazil is one of the world's largest pesticide consumers, but information on pesticide poisoning among workers is scarce. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate acute pesticide poisoning among tobacco growers, according to different criteria. METHODS: This was a two-step cross-sectional study with 492 pesticide applicators. It used a 25 question pesticide-related symptoms (PRS) questionnaire and medical diagnosis for comparison with toxicological assessment. Associations were evaluated using Poisson regression. RESULTS: 10.6% reported two or more PRS, while 8.1% reported three or more. Furthermore, 12.2% received a medical diagnosis of poisoning. According to toxicologists, possible cases accounted for 14.2% and probable cases for 4.3%. PRS increased during the period of greater exposure. Those exposed to dithiocarbamates, sulfentrazone, pyrethroids, fipronil and iprodione exhibited more PRS. The number of exposure types, multi-chemical exposure, clothes wet with pesticides and spillage on the body/clothes were associated with acute poisonings. All criteria showed sensitivity greater than 79% for probable cases but only greater than 70% for medical diagnosis when compared to possible cases, presenting substantial Kappa agreement. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of acute pesticide poisoning is much higher than officially recorded. Trained physicians can screen for pesticide poisoning. It is necessary to improve workers' education to reduce pesticide use and exposure to them.

Extracorporeal treatment for ethylene glycol poisoning: systematic review and recommendations from the EXTRIP workgroup.

Ethylene glycol (EG) is metabolized into glycolate and oxalate and may cause metabolic acidemia, neurotoxicity, acute kidney injury (AKI), and death. Historically, treatment of EG toxicity included supportive care, correction of acid-base disturbances and antidotes (ethanol or fomepizole), and extracorporeal treatments (ECTRs), such as hemodialysis. With the wider availability of fomepizole, the indications for ECTRs in EG poisoning are debated. We conducted systematic reviews of the literature following published EXTRIP methods to determine the utility of ECTRs in the management of EG toxicity. The quality of the evidence and the strength of recommendations, either strong ("we recommend") or weak/conditional ("we suggest"), were graded according to the GRADE approach. A total of 226 articles met inclusion criteria. EG was assessed as dialyzable by intermittent hemodialysis (level of evidence = B) as was glycolate (Level of evidence = C). Clinical data were available for analysis on 446 patients, in whom overall mortality was 18.7%. In the subgroup of patients with a glycolate concentration ≤ 12 mmol/L (or anion gap ≤ 28 mmol/L), mortality was 3.6%; in this subgroup, outcomes in patients receiving ECTR were not better than in those who did not receive ECTR. The EXTRIP workgroup made the following recommendations for the use of ECTR in addition to supportive care over supportive care alone in the management of EG poisoning (very low quality of evidence for all recommendations): i) Suggest ECTR if fomepizole is used and EG concentration > 50 mmol/L OR osmol gap > 50; or ii) Recommend ECTR if ethanol is used and EG concentration > 50 mmol/L OR osmol gap > 50; or iii) Recommend ECTR if glycolate concentration is > 12 mmol/L or anion gap > 27 mmol/L; or iv) Suggest ECTR if glycolate concentration 8-12 mmol/L or anion gap 23-27 mmol/L; or v) Recommend ECTR if there are severe clinical features (coma, seizures, or AKI). In most settings, the workgroup recommends using intermittent hemodialysis over other ECTRs. If intermittent hemodialysis is not available, CKRT is recommended over other types of ECTR. Cessation of ECTR is recommended once the anion gap is < 18 mmol/L or suggested if EG concentration is < 4 mmol/L. The dosage of antidotes (fomepizole or ethanol) needs to be adjusted during ECTR.

Profile and outcomes of acute poisoning in the toxicology treatment and control center at Tanta University Hospital, Egypt.

BACKGROUND: Poisoning is a major health problem especially in developing countries and leads to high morbidity and mortality. AIM: To identify the profile of acute poisoning in the Toxicology Unit at Tanta University Hospital, Egypt (2017-2021). METHODS: A cross-sectional study using data extracted from medical records from beginning of January 2017 to end of December 2021. Data including demographic data, Glasgow coma scale, type of poisons, manner of poisoning, time of admission and discharge and state at discharge. RESULTS: This study included 9713 cases. Rodenticides represented the most frequent cause of poisoning among both males (30%) and females (27%). Pharmaceutical drugs, CNS abused pharmaceutical drugs, and chemicals represent the most common categories (24%, 22%, and 21%, respectively) among children (up to 12 years). Rodenticides and pharmaceutical drugs represent the highest categories among other age groups. Evening admissions represented 52% of cases. Glasgow coma scale was 15 among 86.3% of cases. Intentional poisoning was more common than accidental poisoning (58.6% and 34.7%, respectively). One half (52.2%) of the admitted cases were discharged within 24 hours of admission and 44.4% of them were discharged after 48-72 hours. Family request was the main reason of discharge of cases (70.3%), 15.7% were improved, 4% died. Mortality by rodenticide was 12.5%. CONCLUSION: Rodenticides, pharmaceutical and CNS abused pharmaceutical drugs were the most common categories of poisoning. Intentional poisoning was more common than accidental poisoning. Rodenticides were responsible for most deaths.

Detección de ketamina en pacientes intoxicados por drogas recreativas: perfil epidemiológico, clínico y toxicológico / Ketamine detection in urine samples from patients poisoned by recreational drugs: epidemiologic, clinical, and toxicologic profiles

bjetivo. Identificar el perfil epidemiológico, clínico y toxicológico de los pacientes consumidores de ketamina en el contexto de una intoxicación aguda por drogas recreativas.Método. Estudio observacional retrospectivo en pacientes atendidos en varios servicios de urgencias (SU) en Baleares por intoxicaciones agudas por drogas recreativas con exposición a ketamina confirmada analíticamente, entre enero de 2016 y diciembre de 2020. El análisis toxicológico en muestras de orina se realizó mediante inmunoensayo y cromatografía de gases acoplada a espectrometría de masas.Resultados. Se incluyeron 122 pacientes. La edad media fue de 26,7 (DE 6,5) años. La mayoría eran hombres (77,9%) y no residentes en las Islas Baleares (74,6%). Los casos se detectaron mayoritariamente en verano y en Ibiza (84,4%). El uso de ketamina solo fue declarado por el paciente o fue clínicamente sospechado por el médico en el 40,2%. Los signos clínicos más frecuentes fueron taquicardia (43,4%), hipertensión (28,7%), midriasis (27,0%), disminución de la consciencia (25,4%), agitación/agresividad (25,4%) e hipotermia (21,3%). Siete pacientes (5,7%) requirieron ingreso en la unidad de cuidados intensivos (UCI). La cocaína (93,4%) y la 3,4-metilendioximetanfetamina (MDMA) (78,7%) fueron las drogas más detectadas junto con la ketamina. El policonsumo fue habitual (98,4%), combinando ketamina, cocaína y MDMA, en algunos casos asociado a otras sustancias.Conclusiones. La detección de ketamina en intoxicaciones por drogas recreativas se asocia a consumidores con un perfil característico (varones jóvenes, no residentes, asistentes a eventos de música electrónica y policonsumo) y un alto porcentaje desconocen de este consumo. (AU)

Objective. To describe the epidemiologic, clinical, and toxicologic profiles of patients who used recreational ketamine and experienced acute poisoning. Methods. Retrospective observational study of patients attended by several emergency medical services in the Balearic Islands for analytically confirmed acute poisoning after using ketamine between January 2016 and December 2020. Urine samples were analyzed by immunoassay and combined gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. Results. One hundred twenty-two patients were studied. The mean (SD) age was 26.7 (6.5) years. The majority were men (77.9%) and not residents of the Balearic Islands (74.6%). Poisoning cases occurred mainly in the summer and in the island of Ibiza (84.4%). Ketamine use was declared by the patient or clinically suspected in 40.2%. The most common clinical signs were tachycardia (43.4%), hypertension (28.7%), mydriasis (27.0%), altered consciousness (25.4%), agitation/aggressiveness (25.4%), and hypothermia (21.3%). Seven patients (5.73%) required admission to the intensive care unit. The drugs most often detected along with ketamine were cocaine, in 93.4%, and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), in 78.7%. Multiple-drug use combining ketamine, cocaine, and MDMA, or on occasion additional substances, was detected in 98.4%. Conclusions. Detection of ketamine in urine samples from patients poisoned by recreational drugs is associated with a characteristic profile: young men who are not residents of the Balearic Islands, who attend electronic music. (AU)

Comparing the effectiveness of L-carnitine and paraffin oil in acute aluminum phosphide poisoning using predictive biomarkers and scores: A randomized controlled clinical trial.

Aluminum phosphide (AlP) poisoning is a serious medical emergency with a high mortality rate. The absence of an exact antidote for AlP poisoning necessitates the quest for alternative treatment options. The study sought to assess the efficacy of adding L-carnitine or medicated paraffin oil to the conventional approach of treatment employed in cases of acute AlP poisoning. We conducted a 1 year, randomized, controlled, parallel-group, single-blind clinical study. 96 individuals with acute AlP poisoning were randomly assigned to one of three groups. The standard AlP therapy was administered to all groups according to the Poison Control Center guidelines at the Ain-Shams University hospitals. All patients underwent a medical history review, clinical examination, and laboratory tests. The outcomes were assessed. The participants in the study groups had mean ages ranging from 25.6 to 26.3 years. The cases analyzed were evenly distributed between genders, with the majority originating from rural areas. The average delay time varied from 2.9 to 4.2 h. All patients in the study reported ingesting AlP during suicide attempts. 12 hours after admission, many clinical and biochemical data improved in both intervention groups including cytochrome c oxidase, caspase-3, caspase-9, catalase, and superoxide dismutase. The intervention groups required significantly less mechanical ventilation and had a lower mortality rate than the control group. Decontamination with paraffin oil could be advantageous for reducing the severity of AlP poisoning, improving prognosis, and lowering the mortality rate.

Pharmaceutical toxicity is a common pattern of inpatient acute poisonings in Birjand City, East of Iran.

Information on the pattern of acute poisonings in hospitals of Birjand city, Iran, is limited. This study aimed to address this knowledge gap by examining the admissions in a major poisoning center in eastern Iran. This cross-sectional study included patients admitted to the Imam Reza Hospital in Birjand over 12 months. Medical records of the poisoned patients were reviewed, and the study variables were used for data analysis. During the study period, 534 cases of acute poisonings were evaluated. The patient's ages ranged from 12 to 84 years, with a high rate of poisonings between 15 and 35 years. The female predominance in poisoning cases was 52.1%. Most cases of poisonings occurred in spring, and the common route of exposure was oral (93.1%). The incidence of poisoning in married couples, uneducated patients, and residents of urban areas was 56.5%, 90.1%, and 74.6%, respectively. Patients with a previous medical history experienced addiction and psychiatric disorders. Intentional poisoning accounted for 23.4% of acute poisoning cases referred to the hospital in the current study. The main groups of toxicants were pharmaceutical products (48.1%), narcotics (25.8%), chemical products (10.1%), envenomation (7.1%), and alcohol (1.7%). The mean hospital stay was 2.5 ± 3.0 days, and the final treatment outcome was complete recovery, except for one patient intoxicated by warfarin and alprazolam. Our results indicate that the high toxicity cases were related to pharmaceutical product and opioids abuse, especially methadone (8.4%), alprazolam (7.9%), clonazepam (7.5%), and acetaminophen (9.9%) taken orally and more commonly happened at home. Due to the high rate of deliberate poisonings, especially among young adults and students, monitoring drug distribution and exceptional attention to mental health should be seriously considered by national health authorities to prevent suicide attempts.

Morbidity and Mortality of Unintentional Carbon Monoxide Poisoning: United States 2005 to 2018.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention conducts case surveillance through the National Notifiable Diseases Surveillance System (NNDSS). This study aimed to provide surveillance report of unintentional carbon monoxide poisoning across multiple data sources to provide baseline data for the new NNDSS carbon monoxide poisoning surveillance. METHODS: For the period 2005 to 2018, we used 4 data sources to describe unintentional carbon monoxide poisoning: exposures reported by poison centers, emergency department (ED) visits, hospitalizations, and deaths. We conducted descriptive analyses by the cause of exposure (fire, nonfire, or unknown), age, sex, season, and US census region. Additional analyses were conducted using poison center exposure case data focusing on the reported signs and symptoms, management site, and medical outcome. RESULTS: Annually, we observed 39.5 poison center exposure calls (per 1 million, nationally), 56.5 ED visits (per 1 million, across 17 states), 7.3 hospitalizations (per 1 million, in 26 states), and 3.3 deaths (per 1 million, nationally) due to unintentional carbon monoxide poisoning. For 2005 to 2018, there was a decrease in the crude rate for non-fire-related carbon monoxide poisonings from hospital, and death data. Non-fire-related cases comprised 74.0% of ED visits data, 60.1% of hospitalizations, and 40.9% of deaths compared with other unintentional causes. Across all data sources, unintentional carbon monoxide poisonings were most often reported during the winter season, notably in January and December. Children aged 0 to 9 years had the highest reported rates in poison center exposure case data and ED visits (54.1 and 70.5 per 1 million, respectively); adults older than 80 years had the highest rates of hospitalization and deaths (20.2 and 9.9 per 1 million, respectively); and deaths occurred more often among men and in the Midwest region. Poison center exposure call data revealed that 45.9% of persons were treated at a health care facility. Headaches, nausea, and dizziness/vertigo were the most reported symptoms. CONCLUSION: The crude rates in non-fire-related carbon monoxide poisonings from hospitalizations, and mortality significantly decreased over the study period (ie, 2005 to 2018). This surveillance report provides trends and characteristics of unintentional carbon monoxide poisoning and the baseline morbidities and mortality data for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention national surveillance system of carbon monoxide poisoning.

Pesticide exposure and poisoning in Brazil: Outcome severity, clinical manifestations and management of cases reported to a poison control center.

This work aimed to identify variables associated with increased risk of outcome severity as well as to describe clinical manifestations/symptoms and management of pesticide-related cases reported to a poison center in Brazil. An increased risk of more severe outcomes was observed when exposures occurred in rural areas, involved suicide attempts and moderately to extremely hazardous pesticides. Clinical manifestations with higher frequencies included vomiting, nausea, sialorrhea, headache, miosis and sweating. From the treatment initially applied to the patient, 51.91% encompassed gastric lavage, but this procedure was only recommended in 20.01% of cases by the CIATox. Identifying risk factors associated with poor outcome, describing clinical manifestations, and contrasting initial treatment measures adopted against those recommended by the Poison Center can help determine diagnosis, prognosis and ensure appropriate clinical interventions are used in cases of pesticide poisoning.

An examination of fatal child poisonings in the United States using the National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS), 2012-2017.

BACKGROUND: Fatal drug overdoses are predominantly attributed to opioids. Women of childbearing age are among those at greatest risk, underscoring the need to understand the overlapping risk of fatal poisoning in children. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of fatal poisonings among decedents aged 0-9 years captured in the National Violent Death Reporting System (NVDRS) from 2012 to 2017 was employed. Poisonings were identified using International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision (ICD-10) codes for poisonings (T36-T50, Y10-Y19), toxic effects of substances (T51-T65), and assault (X85-X90). The frequency and types of drugs involved in poisonings were derived from toxicological analysis. Logistic regression was used to model the odds of fatal poisoning by decedent and perpetrator characteristics. Qualitative content analysis was used to contextualize the patterns of fatal poisonings. FINDINGS: 1850 violent deaths were identified; 7% (n = 122) were poisoning-related, and 50% of these were attributed to opioids. Next, benzodiazepines (8%), amphetamines (7%), and antidepressants (5%) were most prevalent. Among poisoning-related deaths, 25% involved homicide-suicide. No differences in deaths were observed according to child race/ethnicity, and the risk of fatal poisoning decreased 6% with each year of child age. Following qualitative analysis, three unique categories of fatal poisoning emerged: "intentional administration without documented benign intent", "intentional administration with benign intent", and "unclear administration". CONCLUSION: The high proportion of fatal poisonings in children attributed to opioids in this study suggests a need for universal dissemination and training of naloxone in households comprised of children living with parents experiencing, or in recovery for substance misuse. Findings also indicate a needed emphasis on safe storage practices and education to parents about the risk of prescription drug toxicity in children.

Toxico-clinical study of patients poisoned with household products; a two-year cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Several studies worldwide have investigated household product poisoning. We conducted a toxico-clinical study on the two-year prevalence of poisoning with household products. METHODS: This cross-sectional study was performed in Khorshid Hospital, the main referral center for poisoning cases in Isfahan, affiliated to Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, central Iran. All patients with intentional or unintentional household substance poisoning, referring to the poisoning emergency center of the hospital, were evaluated with respect to epidemiological and toxico-clinical features and outcomes. RESULTS: During the study period, 5946 patients were hospitalized, of which 83 (1.39%) had been poisoned with household products including 48 (57.8%) men and 35 (42.2%) women with a mean ± SD age of 34.40 ± 17.71 years. Most patients (54.2%) were in the 20-40-year-old age group. Accidental poisoning (63.9%) was the most common type of exposure (P = 0.02) predominantly in men (57.8%, P = 0.51). The most common household products were sodium hypochlorite (32.53%) followed by petroleum hydrocarbon (21.68%). Most of the accidental poisonings (77.8%) were due to petroleum hydrocarbon. 59% of cases were poisoned at home (P < 0.0001). No patient died. CONCLUSION: Household products were not common means of poisoning in our referral center. Sodium hypochlorite and petroleum hydrocarbon were the most common substances. Most of the patients were men with accidental exposure at home. Because of the availability of the household product, the frequency and outcomes may be varied in different societies.