Gestión de llantas usadas en la ciudad de Tunja, Boyacá (Colombia) / Management of used tires in the city of Tunja, Boyacá (Colombia)

RESUMEN Millones de llantas se producen anualmente para satisfacer la demanda mundial, asociada al incremento en la generación de llantas usadas. Su manejo es un desafío, considerando que la disposición en rellenos sanitarios ya no está permitida en algunos países, incluyendo Colombia, entre otras razones, por su alta resistencia biológica y química a la degradación, por lo cual, su inadecuado manejo y la falta de mecanismos de gestión, genera impactos negativos en la salud y el ambiente. Se realizó un estudio sobre la gestión de llantas usadas en Tunja, Boyacá (Colombia), con el fin de indagar aspectos relacionados con su disposición y manejo, al igual que sobre el conocimiento de programas posconsumo, aprovechamiento y cumplimiento de la normatividad ambiental vigente. Para la recolección de información primaria, se aplicaron encuestas estructuradas, a empresas registradas ante la Cámara de Comercio del municipio, que efectuaran actividades relacionadas con la generación de llantas usadas, tales como servitecas, talleres de mecánica o montallantas. El estudio mostró que los mayores generadores de este residuo son los montallantas, con una media entre 20 y 40 unidades mensuales, en mayor porcentaje de Rines 13 y 14, esto indicaría una proyección de 360 llantas anualmente por establecimiento, sin considerar los sitios no legalmente registrados. De manera general, para el avance en la gestión de llantas usadas en Tunja, se recomienda el desarrollo de alternativas, de manera articulada, entre los diferentes actores directamente involucrados, tales como productores, gestores, distribuidores y comercializadores, consumidores y autoridades ambientales regionales y municipales.

ABSTRACT Millions of tires are produced annually to satisfy the world demand, which is associated with an increase in the generation of used tire. Their management is a challenge considering that disposal in sanitary landfills is not allowed in some countries, including Colombia, due to their high biological and chemical resistance to degradation; therefore, their inadequate handling and the lack of management mechanisms generate negative impacts on health and the environment. A study was conducted on the management of used tires in Tunja, Boyacá (Colombia), to inquire aspects related to their disposal and management in the city, as well as on the knowledge of post-consumer programs, use, and compliance with current environmental regulations. For the collection of primary information, structured surveys were applied to companies registered with the Chamber of Commerce of the municipality that carry out activities related to the generation of used tires, such as service shops, mechanic shops or tire repair shops. The study showed that the largest generators of this waste are tire assemblers, with an average of between 20 and 40 units per month, with a higher percentage of rims 13 and 14, which would indicate a projection of 360 tires annually per establishment, without considering the sites that are not legally registered. In general, for the progress in the management of used tires in Tunja, the development of alternatives is recommended in an articulated manner between the different actors directly involved, such as producers, managers, distributors and marketers, consumers, and regional and municipal environmental authorities.

Temporal trends of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in arctic air: 20 years of monitoring under the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP).

Temporal trends of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) measured in Arctic air are essential in understanding long-range transport to remote regions and to evaluate the effectiveness of national and international chemical control initiatives, such as the Stockholm Convention (SC) on POPs. Long-term air monitoring of POPs is conducted under the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) at four Arctic stations: Alert, Canada; Stórhöfði, Iceland; Zeppelin, Svalbard; and Pallas, Finland, since the 1990s using high volume air samplers. Temporal trends observed for POPs in Arctic air are summarized in this study. Most POPs listed for control under the SC, e.g. polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethanes (DDTs) and chlordanes, are declining slowly in Arctic air, reflecting the reduction of primary emissions during the last two decades and increasing importance of secondary emissions. Slow declining trends also signifies their persistence and slow degradation under the Arctic environment, such that they are still detectable after being banned for decades in many countries. Some POPs, e.g. hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and lighter PCBs, showed increasing trends at specific locations, which may be attributable to warming in the region and continued primary emissions at source. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) do not decline in air at Canada's Alert station but are declining in European Arctic air, which may be due to influence of local sources at Alert and the much higher historical usage of PBDEs in North America. Arctic air samples are screened for chemicals of emerging concern to provide information regarding their environmental persistence (P) and long-range transport potential (LRTP), which are important criteria for classification as a POP under SC. The AMAP network provides consistent and comparable air monitoring data of POPs for trend development and acts as a bridge between national monitoring programs and SC's Global Monitoring Plan (GMP).

Informe de la III Reunión del Grupo Asesor Científico Técnico del Plan Regional de Acción para la Reducción de la Mortalidad Materna en las Américas / Report of the III Meeting of the Scientific Technical Advisory Group of the Regional Plan of Action on Reduction of Maternal Mortality in the Americas

Reunión del Grupo Asesor Científico Técnico del Plan Regional de Acción para la Reducción de la Mortalidad Materna en las Américas, 3. Organización Panamericana de la Salud. Programa de Salud de la Familia y Población; 20-21 mayo 1995

Cameroon.

PIP: The US profile of Cameroon indicates brief statistics on the population, geography, government, and economy and brief descriptions of the population, the history, government, political conditions, the economy, foreign relations, defense, and relations with the US. Principal government and US officials are furnished. The 1991 estimated population of Cameroon was 11.7 million of which 60% is rural. There are 200 different tribes who speak many African languages and dialects. The French and English languages both have official status. Muslims live in the north and Christians in the south. 80% live in the formerly French east. The growth rate is 3%. There is 65% literacy. Infant mortality is 20%. 70% are agricultural workers, 13% industrial and commercial, and 17% other. The government is an independent republic with an executive and legislative branch. Independence was achieved in 1960. There is 1 ruling party. Traditional courts administer the laws. Traditional rulers are treated as administrative adjuncts. Suffrage is universal adult. The central government budget is 1.4 billion of which 8.7% is for defense. There are 10 provinces and 4 major cities. The seaport city Douala is the largest at 1.5 million. Gross domestic product (GDP) is $12.5 billion with an annual growth rate of 4.3% and an inflation rate of 2%. Growth has been variable since 1988 and reached a low of 2.4% in 1988-89. Oil, natural gas, bauxite, iron core, and timber are natural resources. 27% of the GDP is in agricultural products (cocoa, coffee, cotton, fishing, and forestry). 13% of the GDP is manufacturing and 24% is industry. Exports are valued at $2.9 billion and imports at $2.2 billion. Major markets are France, Netherlands, and the US. Imports include intermediate goods, capital goods, fuel and lubricants, foodstuffs, beverages, and tobacco. Early inhabitants were the Pygmies, followed later by Bantu speakers, and Muslim Fulani. Political consolidation was achieved in 1970 after a period of terrorism. Economic growth was 8% until world prices in Cameroon's major exports of petroleum, coffee, and cocoa collapsed in 1986. The country is agriculturally self-sufficient. US relations with Cameroon are excellent.^ieng

What hope for Haiti?

PIP: The population, environmental, and economic problems of Haiti must be solved through a national change in attitude, an emphasis on the individual value of children, a social concern for urgent action on sustainable development, and shared responsibility in the international community. The impact of colonialism was to lay waste to subsistence practices which were ecologically balanced. This first nation of self-liberated slaves has problems deeply rooted in the past, which have been worsened by the ruling elite's exploitation. There is extreme poverty, boat people, deforestation, environmental degradation, civil liberty abuses, and a struggle for democracy. Population growth as well as, indirectly, death, hunger, and disease, have contributed to the immigration of Haitians to the US, Canada, France, and neighboring islands. Fertility has been high for the past 20 years. The family planning challenges are discussed in light of the 10% acceptance rate and met demand. The host country's ability to cope with the burden of supplying employment, social services, and legal protection accounts for the reluctance to accept greater numbers of Haitians. Rural-to-urban migration has created nightmares within Haiti. Cite Soleil has a population density of 25,000 people/sq. kilometer, and more than 33% of rural areas is unfit for habitation. The urban slums offer a substandard quality of life due to infiltration of sea water into the soil which prohibits vegetative growth, due to sanitation deficits, and due to inadequate clean water supplies. The example of a small sugar merchant with an income of $40/month reflects the ability to survive but with no provision for empowerment or betterment for the future for the grandchildren in her care. Captain Jacques-Yves Cousteau attests to the difficulties and, maybe, impossibilities of turning around the process of environmental devastation and overpopulation. The ecological problems are primarily due to salinization and deforestation; the pressure for fuelwood has increased since the trade embargo, which prevents importation of butane and propane. Tree planting of 20 million/year yields 2-3 million actually surviving. Destructive fishing, quarrying, and agricultural techniques continue to waste resources.^ieng

Family planning, AIDS, and FHI.

PIP: Family Health International's (FHI) research and development activities in improving and developing contraceptives and making them available to the public are presented. While FHI, along with other agencies, has been actively promoting and contributing to ongoing international family planning efforts since its creation in 1971, the period 1971-91 has, nonetheless, witness more births, maternal deaths, induced abortions, and infant deaths than over any 20-year span in history. While family sizes have decreased over the period due to greater contraceptive awareness and use, politicians, civil servants, and theologians are indicted as partly responsible for retarding further positive change. The number of women of reproductive ages in developing countries will increase by almost 30% in the 1990s, and the world's population will at least double over the next century. 95% of new births will stem from developing countries. Concerted efforts and global commitments of policymakers must be forthcoming in the battle against both high fertility and AIDS prevention. Specifically, at least 130 million new contraceptive users must be recruited in the 1990s. Surveys and field experiences indicate a large degree of unmet need for contraceptive services, with 50-80% of married women in developing countries expressing their desire to limit or space future births. Demand for contraception only increases once a program is in place; rapid reductions of total fertility are exemplified in the cases of Thailand, Colombia, South Korea, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia. Given the resources and commitment, the number of users could be doubled within 10 years.^ieng

Interview: Mr. George Walmsley: UNFPA Country Director for the Philippines.

PIP: George Walmsley, UNFPA country director for the Philippines, discusses demographic and economic conditions in the Philippines, and present plans to revitalize the national population program after 20 years of only modest achievements. The Philippines is a rapidly growing country with much poverty, unemployment and underemployment, uneven population distribution, and a large, highly dependent segment of children and youths under age 15. Initial thrusts of the population program were in favor of fertility reduction, ultimately changing to adopt a perspective more attuned to promoting overall family welfare. Concurrent with this change also came a shift from a clinic-based to community-based approach. Fertility declines have nonetheless grown weaker over the past 8-10 years. A large gap exists between family planning knowledge and practice, with contraceptive prevalence rates declining from 45% in 1986 to 36% in 1988. Behind this lackluster performance are a lack of consistent political support, discontinuities in program implementation, a lack of coordination among participating agencies, and obstacles to program implementation at the field level. The present government considers the revitalization of this program a priority concern. Mr. Walmsley discusses UNFPA's definition of a priority country, and what that means for the Philippines in terms of resources nd future activities. He further responds to questions about the expected effect of the Catholic church upon program implementation and success, non-governmental organization involvement, the role of information and information systems in the program, the relationship between population, environment and sustainable development, and the status of women and its effect on population.^ieng

Beyond pills and condoms.

PIP: Conditions and changes in Kenya, noted by the author after an absence of 20 years, are discussed. Commentary is provided on the marriage pattern and birth rate, modernization, unemployment, changes in transfers of wealth; the individual waste of natural resources in developed countries is contrasted with Kenya's population. The difficulty of individual action and the constraints on acting on the basis of one's understanding are presented. Kenya's population growth from 11 million in 1969 to 25 million in 1990 is evident in the differences in the road to Kutus. The 7 miles down the slope of Mount Kenya in 1969 were dotted with small farms and stretches of solitude, while in 1990 people were everywhere, hundreds going or coming and working in small farms metered out across the countryside. Kenya was 1 of the 1st African nations to adopt a population policy. The growth rate was very high at 4.1 in the 1980s. The present density is 1/2500 people/sq mile. 50% of the population is 15 years. 40,000 were unemployed in 1976 and 1 million are unemployed at present. 75% of the women now 40 married before the age of 20 years; 22% married before 15 years. Kenyans value children as wealth and old age security. Expected children/family has dropped from 7.7 in 1984 to 6.7 in 1989. Contraceptive use has increased from 7% in 1977 to 27% in 1989. Modernization has begun. Many people, because of population growth do not have access to land. Education is the only hope for the future. Civil unrest may occur. Only 4% of the land is arable. Agriculture must expand to the arid plains. Food production/capita has dropped 30% since 1972. Imports for food and development money means debt to developed nations. Westerners hold the monetary wealth, consume more soil, water, and energy, and contribute more greenhouse gases. The impact on the ecosystem of a US baby is 4 times what it is for a Kenyan baby. The example of waste is given of the van of tourists traveling down the road to Kutus, which uses as much oil on the trip as 1 Kenyan might use in a lifetime. Leadership advice is to redirect resources privately: buy products from developing nations. The feeling of being stuck between 2 worlds was paramount.^ieng

USAID in Nepal.

PIP: The USAID's mission in Nepal is to assist development until the people can sustain their own needs: although the US contributes only 5% of donor aid, USAID coordinates donor efforts. The mission's theme is to emphasize agricultural productivity, conserve natural resources, promote the private sector and expand access to health, education and family planning. Nepal, a mountainous country between India and Tibet, has 16 million people growing at 2.5% annually, and a life expectancy of only 51 years. Only 20% of the land is arable, the Kathmandu valley and the Terai strip bordering India. Some of the objectives include getting new seed varieties into cultivation, using manure and compost, and building access roads into the rural areas. Rice and wheat yields have tripled in the '80s relative to the yields achieved in 1970. Other ongoing projects include reforestation, irrigation and watershed management. Integrated health and family planning clinics have been established so that more than 50% of the population is no more than a half day's walk from a health post. The Nepal Fertility Study of 1976 found that only 2.3% of married women were using modern contraceptives. Now the Contraceptive Retail Sales Private Company Ltd., a social marketing company started with USAID help, reports that the contraceptive use rate is now 15%. Some of the other health targets are control of malaria, smallpox, tuberculosis, leprosy, acute respiratory infections, and malnutrition. A related goal is raising the literacy rate for women from the current 12% level. General education goals are primary education teacher training and adult literacy. A few descriptive details about living on the Nepal mission are appended.^ieng

Liberia.

PIP: Liberia, appropriately named since it became the first independent African republic in 1847, lies on the Atlantic coast between Sierra Leone and Cote d'Ivoire. The population of about 2 million people, of 16 ethnic groups including descendants of freed African slaves, and over 20 languages, is growing about 3% yearly. The infant mortality rate is estimated at 132/1000 and the life expectancy 49 years. Education to 6 years of primary school is compulsory but generally not available. Liberia's climate is tropical with a winter wet season throughout the country of coastal plains, although there are some low foothills and mountains near the northeast border. The economy is based on export of iron ore and rubber, with a lesser contribution of timber, diamonds, gold. The current government has been in power since 1985, voted in by contested elections after a 6-year period of martial law. Liberia has had a history since its founding of good relations with the U.S., and support of United Nations and African regional organizations.^ieng

Norway.

PIP: This background note for Norway by the U.S. State Department describes the geography, people, history, government, politics, and foreign relations of this newly oil-rich Scandinavian nation. Norwegians number 4.1 million, growing only at 0.3% per year, of Germanic origin, with 20,000 Laplanders. Infant mortality is 9/1000; life expectancy is 73 and 80 years. The government is a constitutional monarchy, with socialized medicine, education through university and social security. Norway became independent of Sweden in 1905, was a non-belligerent in both world wars, but was occupied by Nazi Germany. Subsequently Norway has required military service and is a member of NATO. Norway is a wealthy developed nation, with a positive foreign trade balance, a per capita income of $14,000, resources of oil, fish, timber, hydroelectric power, ores, and an industrial economy. Norway sends out about $471 million in foreign aid.^ieng