Toxicological characterization of produced water from the Permian Basin.

Produced water (PW) is a hypersaline waste stream generated from the shale oil and gas industry, consisting of numerous anthropogenic and geogenic compounds. Despite prior geochemical characterization, the comprehensive toxicity assessment is lacking for evaluating treatment technologies and the beneficial use of PW. In this study, a suite of in vitro toxicity assays using various aquatic organisms (luminescent bacterium Vibrio fischeri, fish gill cell line RTgill-W1, and microalgae Scenedesmus obliquus) were developed to investigate the toxicological characterizations of PW from the Permian Basin. The exposure to PW, PW inorganic fraction (PW-IF), and PW salt control (PW-SC) at 30-50% dilutions caused significant toxicological effects in all model species, revealing the high salinity was the foremost toxicological driver in PW. In addition, the toxicity level of PW was usually higher than that of PW-IF, suggesting that organic contaminants might also play a critical role in PW toxicity. When comparing the observed toxicity with associated chemical characterizations in different PW samples, strong correlations were found between them since higher concentrations of contaminants could generally result in higher toxicity towards exposed organisms. Furthermore, the toxicity results from the pretreated PW indicated that those in vitro toxicity assays had different sensitives to the chemical components present in PW. As expected, the combination of multiple pretreatments could lead to a more significant decrease in toxicity compared to the single pretreatment since the mixture of contaminants in PW might exhibit synergistic toxicity. Overall, the current work is expected to enhance our understanding of the potential toxicological impacts of PW to aquatic ecosystems and the relationships between the chemical profiles and observed toxicity in PW, which might be conducive to the establishment of monitoring, remediation, treatment, and reuse protocols for PW.