[Behavioral characteristics of nicotine seeking: a role of the nicotine-conditioned effects and other mechanisms].

Nicotine dependence and its neural mechanisms have been well documented by pharmacological, behavioral and neuroscience studies. In this review, we introduce recent new findings in this theme, particularly on the role of nicotine -associated stimuli as non-pharmacological factors affecting maintaining/reinstating nicotine seeking. By using the techniques of drug self-administration and conditioned place preference, nicotine's specific property of forming seeking/taking behavior is well characterized, and the mechanisms of seeking/taking could be partly explained by discrete and/or contextual conditioned stimuli (dCS and cCS). After having the repeated Pavlovian conditioning in the training/conditioning sessions, CSs begin to play a key role for eliciting nicotine seeking behavior, with the activation of mesolimbic dopaminergic systems. In our study, intracranial self- stimulation (ICSS) was used to assess the mesolimbic dopamine activity. The nicotine-associated cCS also activated this neural system, which resulted in decreasing the ICSS threshold approximately 20% in the testing session under the cCS presentation. This finding would support the evidence of CS-induced incentive motivation for nicotine. According to the incentive salience hypothesis, the mesolimbic dopamine reflects the motivation elicited by incentives (CSs), and induces the drug seeking behavior, which is activated through amygdala--nucleus accumbens--medial prefrontal cortex circuit. Additionally, human brain imaging studies have revealed that tobacco- associated stimuli activate not only these regions, but also right temporo-parietal junction of human cortex, which is relevant to the visual attention. In summary, the above evidence shows that nicotine-conditioned stimuli might have powerful incentive salience and regulate nicotine seeking/taking behavior in animals and humans, though stress and nicotine-withdrawal could also enhance nicotine taking in the same way as other dependence -producing mechanisms.