Assessment of groundwater hydrochemistry, water quality, and health risk in Hainan Island, China.

Groundwater is an important source of water for human sustenance. The determination of groundwater quality at island sites is an urgent priority in China, but there are lacking systematic reports relating to them. Here, 63 groups of groundwater samples were collected and analyzed of Hainan Island. The groundwater in the study area is weakly alkaline, mainly comprising hard and soft freshwater. The predominant anions and cations are HCO3-, and Ca2+ and Na+, respectively, and the main water chemistry types are HCO3-Cl-Na and HCO3-Cl-Na-Ca. The chemical evolution of groundwater is mainly affected by water-rock interactions, cation exchange, and human activity. The groundwater is mostly of high quality and, in most areas, is suitable for drinking and irrigation. Contrastingly, the water quality in the west of the island is relatively poor. The spatial distribution of the risk coefficient (HQ) is consistent with the spatial variation in the NO3- concentrations in the groundwater. Notably, there are unacceptable health risks for different groups of people, with infants having the greatest level of impact, followed by children, teenagers, and adults. This study provides a valuable reference for the development and utilization of groundwater resources, as well as the improvement of aquatic ecological conditions on Hainan Island and other island areas worldwide.