The pivotal role of cardiovascular imaging in the identification and risk stratification of non-compaction cardiomyopathy patients.

Non-compaction cardiomyopathy (NCM) is a heterogeneous myocardial disease that can finally lead to heart failure, arrhythmias, and/or embolic events. Therefore, early diagnosis and treatment is of paramount importance. Furthermore, genetic assessment and counseling are crucial for individual risk assessment and family planning. Echocardiography is the first-line imaging modality. However, it is hampered by interobserver variability, depends among others on the quality of the acoustic window, cannot assess reliably the right ventricle and the apex, and cannot provide tissue characterization. Cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) provides a 3D approach allowing imaging of the entire heart, including both left and right ventricle, with low operator variability or limitations due to patient's body structure. Furthermore, tissue characterization, using late gadolinium enhancement (LGE), allows the detection of fibrotic areas possibly representing the substrate for potentially lethal arrhythmias, predicts the severity of LV systolic dysfunction, and differentiates apical thrombus from fibrosis. Conversely, besides being associated with high costs, CMR has long acquisition/processing times, lack of expertise among cardiologists/radiologists, and limited availability. Additionally, in cases of respiratory and/or cardiac motion artifacts or arrhythmias, the cine images may be blurred. However, CMR cannot be applied to patients with not CMR-compatible implanted devices and LGE may be not available in patients with severely reduced GFR. Nevertheless, native T1 mapping can provide detailed tissue characterization in such cases. This tremendous potential of CMR makes this modality the ideal tool for better risk stratification of NCM patient, based not only on functional but also on tissue characterization information.

Advancements in the diagnostic workup, prognostic evaluation, and treatment of takotsubo syndrome.

Takotsubo syndrome (TTS) is an acute and mostly reversible cardiomyopathy that mimics an acute coronary syndrome with left ventricular (LV) systolic dysfunction without relevant obstructive coronary artery disease. Its prevalence is probably underestimated and reaches 1.2-2% in patients with acute coronary syndrome undergoing coronary catheterization. Although supraphysiological epinephrine levels have been associated with TTS, the detailed pathophysiology is incompletely understood. Chest pain is the most common clinical presentation; however, cardiac decompensation, cardiogenic shock, and sudden cardiac death due to ventricular fibrillation may also be the first clinical manifestations. Patients are mostly postmenopausal women, in whom the condition is commonly associated with emotional triggers; however, men have a higher prevalence of TTS being associated with physical triggers, which has a worse prognosis compared with TTS associated with emotional triggers. As a diagnosis of exclusion, TTS has no single definitive diagnostic test. According to the distribution of LV wall motion abnormalities, various morphological subtypes have been identified. The final diagnosis depends on cardiac imaging with left ventricular angiography during acute heart catheterization, as well as on echocardiography and cardiac magnetic resonance. Most patients recover completely, albeit several factors have been associated with worse prognosis. Management is based on observational data, while randomized multicenter studies are still lacking. This review provides a general overview of TTS and focuses on the hypothesized pathophysiology, and especially on current practices in diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment.

Systematic review on left atrial appendage closure with the LAmbre device in patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation.

BACKGROUND: Percutaneous closure (LAAC) of the left atrial appendage (LAA) is an efficacious preventive procedure for patients with non-valvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF) and considerable bleeding risk. We sought to systematically review the available LAAC data on the novel occluder device LAmbre™. METHODS: For this systematic review, a search of the literature was conducted by 3 independent reviewers, reporting the safety and therapeutic success of LAAC in patients being treated with a LAmbre™. Publications reporting the safety and therapeutic success of LAAC using LAmbre™ in n > 5 patients were included. RESULTS: The literature search retrieved n = 10 publications, encompassing n = 403 NVAF patients treated with a LAmbre™ LAAC, with relevant data regarding safety and therapeutic success of the procedure. The mean CHA2DS2-VASc Score was 4.0 + 0.9, and the mean HAS-BLED score was 3.4 + 0.5. The implantation success was 99.7%, with a mean procedure time of 45.4 ± 18.7 min, and a fluoroscopy time of 9.6 ± 5.9 min, and a contrast agent volume of 96.7 ± 0.7 ml. The anticoagulation regimen was switched to DAPT post procedure in the majority of the patients (96.8%). Partial and full recapture were done in 45.5% and in 25.6%, respectively. Major complications were reported in 2.9%, with 0.3% mortality, 1.7% pericardial tamponade, 0.3% stroke, and 0.6% major bleeding complications; no device embolization was observed. During follow up at 6 or 12 months, major adverse cardiovascular events were reported in 3.3%: Stroke or TIA in 1.7%, thrombus formation on the device in 0.7%, and residual flow > 5 mm in 1.0%. In some publications, the favorable implantion properties of the LAmbre™ for difficult anatomies such as shallow or multilobular LAA anatomies were described. CONCLUSIONS: This systematic review on the LAmbre™ LAA-occluder including n = 403 NVAF patients demonstrates an excellent implantion success rate, promising follow-up clinical data, and favorable properties for also challenging LAA anatomies,. While its design seems to be helpful in preventing device embolization, pericardial tamponade may not be substantially reduced by the LAmbre™ as compared with other established LAAC devices. Further larger prospective multicenter registries and randomized trials are needed to scrutinize the value of the LAmbre™ compared with established LAAC devices.

Review on sudden death risk reduction after septal reduction therapies in hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy.

Treatment of left ventricular outflow tract (LVOT) obstruction in hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy (HOCM) with septal reduction, either with myectomy or alcohol septal ablation, is aiming to reduce the LVOT gradient and improve symptoms in patients who are refractory to or do not tolerate medical treatment. Apart from contributing to the evolution to heart failure, LVOT obstruction is considered a risk factor for sudden cardiac death (SCD). Both septal reduction treatments have been proven effective in reducing symptoms and seem to improve survival, which has been shown equal to the expected in the normal population. SCD is probably reduced after septal reduction, implying that LVOT obstruction is a major factor predisposing to ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Although available algorithms for SCD stratification have not been tested in patients after septal reduction treatments, effective treatment improves SCD risk profile substantially. Furthermore, high-risk patients with already implanted implantable cardioverter defibrillators (ICDs) before septal reduction show very low appropriate ICD shock rate after effective treatment. It should be noted, however, that the best outcomes for septal myectomy or ablation have been reported in HOCM patients treated in high-volume centres, which substantiates the need to refer patients to centres with high procedural expertise.

Advances in the diagnosis and treatment of transthyretin amyloidosis with cardiac involvement.

Amyloidosis is caused by extracellular deposition of insoluble abnormal fibrils constituted by misfolded proteins, which can modify tissue anatomy and hinder the function of multiple organs including the heart. Amyloidosis that can affect the heart includes mostly systemic amyloidosis (amyloid light chain, AL) and transthyretin amyloidosis (ATTR). The latter can be acquired in elderly patients (ATTRwt), or be inherited in younger individuals (ATTRm). The diagnosis is demanding given the high phenotypic heterogeneity of the disease. Therefore, "red flags," which are suggestive features giving support to diagnostic suspicion, are extremely valuable. However, the lack of broad awareness among clinicians represents a major obstacle for early diagnosis and treatment of ATTR. Furthermore, recent implementation of noninvasive diagnostic techniques has revisited the need for endomyocardial biopsy (EMB). In fact, unlike AL amyloidosis, which requires tissue confirmation and typing for diagnosis, ATTR can now be diagnosed noninvasively with the combination of bone scintigraphy and the absence of a monoclonal protein. Securing the correct diagnosis is pivotal for the newly available therapeutic options targeting both ATTRm and ATTRwt, and are directed to either stabilization of the abnormal protein or the reduction of the production of transthyretin. The purpose of this article is to review the contemporary aspects of diagnosis and management of transthyretin amyloidosis with cardiac involvement, summarizing also the recent therapeutic advances with tafamidis, patisiran, and inotersen.

Time course, predictors, and prognostic implications of significant mitral regurgitation after ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction.

BACKGROUND: Ischemic mitral regurgitation (MR) is a known complication of ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) with important prognostic implications. We evaluated changes over time in ischemic MR after STEMI and the prevalence and predictors of significant (grade ≥2) MR at 12 months. Furthermore, the prognostic additional value of significant MR at 12-month follow-up over acute MR was assessed. METHODS: STEMI patients (n = 1,599; 77% male; 60 ± 12 years) treated with primary percutaneous coronary intervention underwent echocardiography <48 hours of admission (baseline) and at 12 months. Mortality data were collected during long-term follow-up. RESULTS: At baseline, significant MR was present in 103 (6%) patients. After 12 months, MR worsened ≥1 grade in 321 (20%) patients, remained stable in 963 (60%), and improved ≥1 grade in 315 (20%). Significant MR was present in 135 patients at 12 months (8%, P = .01 vs baseline). Age, left ventricular end-systolic volume, and significant MR at baseline were independently associated with significant MR at follow-up. During follow-up (median, 50 months), 121 (8%) patients died (40% of cardiovascular cause). Significant MR at follow-up was independently associated with all-cause (hazard ratio, 1.65, 95% CI, 1.02-2.99) and cardiovascular mortality (hazard ratio, 2.47; 95% CI, 1.24-4.92), also after adjusting for significant MR at baseline. CONCLUSIONS: The prevalence of significant MR after STEMI increases over time. Age, baseline left ventricular end-systolic volume, and baseline significant MR are independently associated with significant MR at follow-up. Significant MR at 12 months is associated with subsequent all-cause and cardiovascular mortality and shows additional prognostic value over acute MR.

Left ventricular function and exercise performance in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy: role of tissue Doppler imaging.

BACKGROUND: To examine the relationship between left ventricular (LV) function evaluated at echocardiography and exercise performance in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy (IDCM) patients. METHODS AND RESULTS: We enrolled 76 consecutive IDCM patients in sinus rhythm, undergoing cardiopulmonary exercise testing and echocardiography [49 ±â€Š13 years old; LV ejection fraction 31 ±â€Š7%, LV end-diastolic volume 96 ±â€Š31 ml/m; peak oxygen consumption (peak VO2/kg) 18 ±â€Š5.6 ml/kg/min]. Linear regression analysis revealed that peak systolic velocity (S') (r = 0.46; P < 0.001) and E/E' (r = -0.43; P < 0.001), two tissue Doppler imaging derived parameters, were related to peak VO2/kg, whereas ejection fraction and mitral inflow variables were not. Considering the 69 patients (90%) without diastolic restrictive pattern (a well known index of severe diastolic dysfunction), multivariate regression analysis showed that age, E/E' and S' were the only independent variables related to peak VO2/kg. Similarly, age and E/E' were confirmed as independent parameters for the prediction of ventilation/carbon dioxide production slope in the whole population. CONCLUSION: In IDCM patients, cardiopulmonary exercise performance variables were strongly related to E/E' and S'.

[Work-up and management of constrictive pericarditis: a critical review]. / Inquadramento e gestione della pericardite costrittiva: revisione critica.

Constrictive pericarditis is a rare pericardial disorder that causes an impairment of cardiac filling and frequently heart failure. The clinical presentation is non-specific and the differential diagnosis includes myocardial diseases, particularly restrictive cardiomyopathy. Echocardiography has a central role in the initial diagnosis. Some peculiar signs, such as abnormal inspiratory shift of the interventricular septum, increased respiratory variations of transmitral, transtricuspid and hepatic vein flow velocities and the normality of early diastolic relaxation velocity (e') at tissue Doppler, increase the likelihood of the disease. These signs are an expression of increased ventricular interdependence and dissociation between intrathoracic and intracardiac pressures typical of pericardial constriction. For further diagnosis, computed tomography and magnetic resonance are used to identify the presence of pericardial thickening. Invasive cardiac catheterization is indicated in dubious cases and in the assessment of the severity of hemodynamic abnormalities, especially in cases with surgical indication. Pericardiectomy is indicated in symptomatic patients meeting the diagnostic criteria of constrictive pericarditis and is able to improve the prognosis.

Differential response of LV sublayer twist during dobutamine stress echocardiography as a novel marker of contractile reserve after acute myocardial infarction: relationship with follow-up LVEF improvement.

AIMS: Dobutamine stress echocardiography (DSE) is frequently performed to assess left ventricular (LV) contractile reserve in patients following myocardial infarction (STEMI). Given that resting LV sublayer twist assessment has been proposed as a marker of infarct transmurality, this study aimed to investigate whether response of LV subepicardial twist on DSE represents a novel quantitative marker of contractile reserve. METHODS AND RESULTS: First STEMI patients treated with primary percutaneous coronary intervention with a resting wall motion abnormality in greater than or equal to two segment(s) at 3 months who underwent full protocol DSE were included. Two-dimensional speckle-tracking was used to calculate LV subepi- and subendocardial twist-defined as the net difference (in degrees) of apical and basal rotation for each sublayer-at rest and peak-dose stages. Primary end point was a ≥5% absolute LV ejection fraction (LVEF) improvement between 3 and 6 months. In total, 61 patients (mean age 61 ± 12, 87% male) were included, of whom 48% (n = 29) demonstrated follow-up LVEF improvement. Mean change in both LV subepicardial (ΔLVsubepi) twist (2.4 ± 3.0 vs. 0.00 ± 2.0°, P = 0.001) and LV subendocardial (ΔLVsubendo) twist (2.7 ± 4.5 vs. 0.25 ± 4.5°, P = 0.04) from rest to peak was significantly higher in LVEF improvers. ΔLVsubepi (odds ratio, OR 1.5, 95% confidence interval, CI 1.1-2.0, P = 0.007), but not ΔLVsubendo (OR 1.1, 95% CI 0.99-1.3, P = 0.07), twist was independently associated with follow-up LVEF improvement following adjustment for baseline LVEF and ß-blockade. CONCLUSION: In post-STEMI patients with resting regional dysfunction, the response of LV subepicardial twist on DSE is associated with follow-up LV function improvement, suggesting recruitment in subepicardial function following STEMI reflects greater extent of contractile reserve.

Detection of subtle left ventricular systolic dysfunction in patients with significant aortic regurgitation and preserved left ventricular ejection fraction: speckle tracking echocardiographic analysis.

AIMS: The aim of this study was to characterize left ventricular (LV) mechanics in symptomatic and asymptomatic patients with moderate-to-severe or severe aortic regurgitation (AR) and preserved ejection fraction (left ventricular ejection fraction) using two-dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography (2D-STE). The association between baseline LV strain and development of indications for surgery in asymptomatic patients was also evaluated. METHODS AND RESULTS: A total of 129 patients with moderate-to-severe or severe AR and LVEF >50% (age 55 ± 17 years, 64% male, 53% asymptomatic at baseline) were included. Standard echocardiography and 2D-STE were performed at baseline. Compared with asymptomatic patients, symptomatic patients had significantly impaired LV longitudinal (-14.9 ± 3.0 vs. -16.8 ± 2.5%, P < 0.001), circumferential (-17.5 ± 2.9 vs. -19.3 ± 2.8%, P = 0.001), and radial (35.7 ± 12.2 vs. 43.1 ± 14.7%, P = 0.004) strains. Among 49 asymptomatic patients who were followed up, 26 developed indications for surgery (symptoms onset or LVEF ≤50%). These patients had comparable LV volumes, LVEF, and colour Doppler assessments of AR jet at baseline, but more impaired LV longitudinal (P = 0.009) and circumferential (P = 0.017) strains compared with patients who remained asymptomatic. Impaired baseline LV longitudinal (per 1% decrease, HR = 1.21, P = 0.04) or circumferential (per 1% decrease, HR = 1.22, P = 0.04) strain was independently associated with the need for surgery. CONCLUSION: Multidirectional LV strain was more impaired in symptomatic than in asymptomatic patients with moderate-to-severe or severe AR, despite preserved LVEF. In asymptomatic AR patients, longitudinal and circumferential strains identified patients who would require surgery during follow-up.

A life-threatening manifestation of tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy.

A 74-year-old man was referred to hospital for sustained dyspnea. The patient was normotensive (110/70 mmHg) with clinical evidence of congestive heart failure. ECG showed atrial flutter (145 bpm). Transthoracic echocardiography demonstrated a mildly dilated left ventricle with severe systolic dysfunction and a big irregular mobile mass, a mildly dilated right ventricle with moderate systolic dysfunction and a large mass protruding into the cavity. The patient was treated surgically for high embolic and sudden death risk after coronarography, which showed a single stenosis (70%) of the left anterior descending coronary. Myocardial biopsy demonstrated interstitial and endocardial fibrosis, no inflammatory pattern. After 6 months of follow-up echocardiography was normal.

Left ventricular twist during dobutamine stress echocardiography after acute myocardial infarction: association with reverse remodeling.

Left ventricular (LV) twist is emerging as a marker of global LV contractility after acute myocardial infarction (AMI). This study aimed to describe stress-induced changes in LV twist during dobutamine stress echocardiography (DSE) after AMI and investigate their association with LV reverse remodeling at 6 months follow-up. In 82 consecutive first AMI patients (61 ± 12 years, 85 % male) treated with primary percutaneous coronary intervention, DSE was performed at 3 months follow-up. Two-dimensional speckle-tracking-derived apical and basal rotation and LV twist were calculated at rest, low- and peak-dose stages. LV reverse remodeling was defined as ≥10 % decrease in LV end-systolic volume between baseline and 6 months follow-up. Patterns of LV twist response on DSE consisted of either a progressive increase throughout each stage (n = 18), an increase at either low- or peak-dose (n = 53) or no significant increase (n = 11). LV reverse remodeling occurred in 28 (34 %) patients, who showed significantly higher peak-dose LV twist (8.51° vs. 6.69°, p = 0.03) and more frequently progressive LV twist increase from rest to peak-dose (39 vs. 13 %, p < 0.01) compared to patients without reverse remodeling. Furthermore, increase in LV twist from rest to peak-dose was the only independent predictor of LV reverse remodeling at 6 months follow-up (OR 1.3, 95 % CI 1.1-1.5, p = 0.005). Both the pattern of progressive increase in LV twist and the stress-induced increment in LV twist on DSE are significantly associated with LV reverse remodeling at 6 month follow-up after AMI, suggesting its potential use as a novel marker of contractile reserve.

Association between multilayer left ventricular rotational mechanics and the development of left ventricular remodeling after acute myocardial infarction.

BACKGROUND: The identification of patients at risk for developing left ventricular (LV) remodeling after acute myocardial infarction (AMI) has crucial prognostic implications. The aims of this study were (1) to investigate the relationship between peak subepicardial and subendocardial twist and infarct transmurality, as assessed using contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging, and (2) to evaluate the association between peak subepicardial and subendocardial twist and LV remodeling 6 months after AMI. METHODS: A total of 213 patients with ST-segment elevation AMIs who underwent three-dimensional echocardiography for LV volumes and functional assessment and two-dimensional speckle-tracking analysis for the evaluation of LV twist (subendocardial vs subepicardial) were retrospectively included. A subgroup of 40 patients underwent magnetic resonance imaging within 2 months for infarct size quantification. RESULTS: Peak subepicardial twist was strongly related to infarct size (number of segments with transmural scar: r(2) = 0.526, P < .001; total scar score: r(2) = 0.515, P < .001) compared with peak subendocardial twist (number of segments with transmural scar: r(2) = 0.379, P < .001; total scar score: r(2) = 0.331, P < .001). In the overall population, 44 patients (21%) developed significant LV remodeling at 6-month follow-up (LV end-systolic volume increase ≥ 15%). These patients showed significantly more impaired peak subepicardial and subendocardial twist at baseline compared with patients without LV remodeling (4.5 ± 1.3° vs 9.4 ± 3.5°, P < .001; 7.0 ± 3.2° vs 12.9 ± 5.8°, P < .001, respectively). Importantly, peak subepicardial twist (odds ratio, 0.241; 95% confidence interval, 0.134-0.431; P < .001) and peak troponin T (odds ratio, 1.152; 95% confidence interval, 1.006-1.320; P = .041) were independently associated with the development of LV remodeling. CONCLUSIONS: Peak subepicardial twist strongly reflects infarct transmurality as assessed with magnetic resonance imaging and is independently associated with LV remodeling after AMI.

Effect of cardiac resynchronization therapy on the sequence of mechanical activation assessed by two-dimensional radial strain imaging.

Cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) induces left ventricular (LV) reverse remodeling by synchronizing LV mechanical activation. We evaluated changes in segmental LV activation after CRT and related them to CRT response. A total of 292 patients with heart failure (65 ± 10 years, 77% men) treated with CRT underwent baseline echocardiographic assessment of LV volumes and ejection fraction. Time-to-peak radial strain was measured for 6 midventricular LV segments with speckle-tracking strain imaging. Moreover, the time difference between the peak radial strain of the anteroseptal and the posterior segments was calculated to obtain LV dyssynchrony. After 6 months, LV volumes, segmental LV mechanical activation timings, and LV dyssynchrony were reassessed. Response to CRT was defined as ≥15% decrease in LV end-systolic volume at 6-month follow-up. Responders (n = 177) showed LV resynchronization 6 months after CRT (LV dyssynchrony from 200 ± 127 to 85 ± 86 ms; p <0.001) by earlier activation of the posterior segment (from 438 ± 141 to 394 ± 132 ms; p = 0.001) and delayed activation of the anteroseptal segment (from 295 ± 155 to 407 ± 138 ms; p <0.001). In contrast, nonresponders (n = 115) experienced an increase in LV dyssynchrony 6 months after CRT (from 106 ± 86 to 155 ± 112 ms; p = 0.001) with an earlier activation of posterior wall (from 391 ± 139 to 355 ± 136 ms; p = 0.039) that did not match the delayed anteroseptal activation (from 360 ± 148 to 415 ± 122 ms; p = 0.001). In conclusion, responders to CRT showed LV resynchronization through balanced lateral and anteroseptal activations. In nonresponders, LV dyssynchrony remains, by posterior wall preactivation and noncompensatory delayed septal wall activation.

Value of three-dimensional speckle-tracking longitudinal strain for predicting improvement of left ventricular function after acute myocardial infarction.

Identification of patients with reversible left ventricular (LV) dysfunction has important prognostic implications after acute myocardial infarction (AMI). This study aimed to determine the value of LV segmental and global longitudinal strains assessed with 3-dimensional (3D) speckle-tracking analysis in predicting improvement of LV function after AMI. One hundred fifty-three patients (80% men, 59 ± 11 years old) with AMI and treated with primary percutaneous coronary intervention underwent 3D echocardiography. LV segmental and global 3D longitudinal strains were assessed with speckle-tracking analysis using a novel dedicated software. At 6-month follow-up, improvement in segmental LV function was defined as a decrease of ≥1 grade in segmental wall motion score. Improvement in global LV function was defined as an absolute improvement ≥5% in LV ejection fraction. Segments with functional improvement at follow-up showed a significantly higher baseline 3D longitudinal strain compared to segments without improvement (-16.4 ± 4.0% vs -7.6 ± 3.5%, p <0.001). A cut-off value of -11.1% for segmental 3D longitudinal strain had 92% sensitivity and 91% specificity in predicting functional improvement. In addition, 67 patients (44%) showed an improvement in global LV function at 6-month follow-up. These patients showed significantly higher baseline global 3D longitudinal strain compared to patients without improvement (-16.7 ± 2.1% vs -13.3 ± 2.6%, p <0.001). Global 3D longitudinal strain provided incremental value over clinical and conventional echocardiographic variables in predicting global LV function improvement (c-statistic improved from 0.64 to 0.71 to 0.84). In conclusion, longitudinal strain assessed by 3D speckle-tracking analysis is an important predictor for segmental and global LV function improvement after AMI.

Relation of aortic valve weight to severity of aortic stenosis.

The purpose of this study was to analyze the relation of aortic valve weight to transvalvular gradient and area, with special regard to valve anatomy, size of calcific deposits, gender, and body size. Two hundred forty-two surgically excised stenotic aortic valves of patients (139 men, mean age 72 ± 9 years) who had undergone preoperative cardiac catheterization and echocardiography were weighed and examined with respect to number of cusps (tricuspid vs bicuspid), size of calcium deposits (microaggregates vs nodular macroaggregates), and presence of cholesterol clefts. The relation among valve weight, gradient, and area was studied. Transvalvular gradient was independent of gender or valve anatomy and was linearly correlated with valve weight absolutely (r = 0.33, p <0.01) or normalized by body surface area (r = 0.40, p <0.01). No correlation was evident between valve area and weight. Calcium macroaggregates were mainly present in men (51%) and in bicuspid valves (67%) and were seen to be strong determinants of valve weight (2.84 ± 1.03 g with macroaggregates vs 1.63 ± 0.56 g with microaggregates, p <0.001) but not of transvalvular gradient. Calcium microaggregates characterized tricuspid valves (62%), where transvalvular gradient was determined by valve weight (p = 0.0026). In conclusion, the heavier the valve, the less frequent were hypercholesterolemia, valve cholesterol clefts, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus.

Pharmacological treatment of chronic systolic heart failure: are we scraping the bottom of the barrel?

Heart failure is a major health problem and its prevalence is growing, primarily as a consequence of the aging of the population. Recently, we have witnessed significant progress in reducing the mortality associated with chronic heart failure due to the introduction of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors, beta-blocking agents and the use of electrical devices. However, the prognosis of heart failure is still so disappointing that it remains the leading cause of death in developed countries. This grim record impels the search for new therapeutic strategies. The objective of this paper is to briefly review the results of some recent trials that have been put in place to test the effects of drugs that are deemed to be potentially capable of improving the prognosis of chronic systolic heart failure patients. Despite compelling theoretical premises, the results to date appear to be weak or even disappointing.