RESUMO
Berries represent one of the most important and high-valued group of modern-day health-beneficial "superfoods" whose dietary consumption has been recognized to be beneficial for human health for a long time. In addition to being delicious, berries are rich in nutrients, vitamins, and several bioactive compounds, including carotenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids, and hydrolysable tannins. However, due to their high value, berries and berry-based products are often subject to fraudulent adulteration, commonly for economical gain, but also unintentionally due to misidentification of species. Deliberate adulteration often comprises the substitution of high-value berries with lower value counterparts and mislabeling of product contents. As adulteration is deceptive toward customers and presents a risk for public health, food authentication through different methods is applied as a countermeasure. Although many authentication methods have been developed in terms of fast, sensitive, reliable, and low-cost analysis and have been applied in the authentication of a myriad of food products and species, their application on berries and berry-based products is still limited. The present review provides an overview of the development and application of analytical chemistry methods, such as isotope ratio analysis, liquid and gas chromatography, spectroscopy, as well as DNA-based methods and electronic sensors, for the authentication of berries and berry-based food products. We provide an overview of the earlier use and recent advances of these methods, as well as discuss the advances and drawbacks related to their application.
Assuntos
Flavonoides , Frutas , Dieta , HumanosRESUMO
Long-lived conifers are vulnerable to climate change because classical evolutionary processes are slow in developing adaptive responses. Therefore, the capacity of a genotype to adopt different phenotypes is important. Gene expression is the primary mechanism that converts genome-encoded information into phenotypes, and DNA methylation is employed in the epigenetic regulation of gene expression. We investigated variations in global DNA methylation and gene expression between three Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) populations located in northern and southern Finland using mature seeds. Gene expression levels were studied in six DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) genes, which were characterized in this study, and in 19 circadian clock genes regulating adaptive traits. In embryos, expression diversity was found for three DNMT genes, which maintain DNA methylation. The expression of two DNMT genes was strongly correlated with climate variables, which suggests a role for DNA methylation in local adaptation. For adaptation-related genes, expression levels showed between-population variation in 11 genes in megagametophytes and in eight genes in embryos, and many of these genes were linked to climate factors. Altogether, our results suggest that differential DNA methylation and gene expression contribute to local adaptation in Scots pine populations and may enhance the fitness of trees under rapidly changing climatic conditions.
Assuntos
Adaptação Biológica , Metilação de DNA , Expressão Gênica , Metiltransferases/genética , Pinus sylvestris/genética , Proteínas de Plantas/genética , Finlândia , Metiltransferases/metabolismo , Pinus sylvestris/metabolismo , Proteínas de Plantas/metabolismoRESUMO
Background and Aims: Polyamines are small metabolites present in all living cells and play fundamental roles in numerous physiological events in plants. The aminopropyltransferases (APTs), spermidine synthase (SPDS), spermine synthase (SPMS) and thermospermine synthase (ACL5), are essential enzymes in the polyamine biosynthesis pathway. In angiosperms, SPMS has evolved from SPDS via gene duplication, whereas in gymnosperms APTs are mostly unexplored and no SPMS gene has been reported. The present study aimed to investigate the functional properties of the SPDS and ACL5 proteins of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in order to elucidate the role and evolution of APTs in higher plants. Methods: Germinating Scots pine seeds and seedlings were analysed for polyamines by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the expression of PsSPDS and PsACL5 genes by in situ hybridization. Recombinant proteins of PsSPDS and PsACL5 were produced and investigated for functional properties. Also gene structures, promoter regions and phylogenetic relationships of PsSPDS and PsACL5 genes were analysed. Key Results: Scots pine tissues were found to contain spermidine, spermine and thermospermine. PsSPDS enzyme catalysed synthesis of both spermidine and spermine. PsACL5 was found to produce thermospermine, and PsACL5 gene expression was localized in the developing procambium in embryos and tracheary elements in seedlings. Conclusions: Contrary to previous views, our results demonstrate that SPMS activity is not a novel feature developed solely in the angiosperm lineage of seed plants but also exists as a secondary property in the Scots pine SPDS enzyme. The discovery of bifunctional SPDS from an evolutionarily old conifer reveals the missing link in the evolution of the polyamine biosynthesis pathway. The finding emphasizes the importance of pre-existing secondary functions in the evolution of new enzyme activities via gene duplication. Our results also associate PsACL5 with the development of vascular structures in Scots pine.
Assuntos
Evolução Biológica , Pinus sylvestris/metabolismo , Poliaminas/metabolismo , Sementes/metabolismo , Espermidina Sintase/metabolismo , Regulação da Expressão Gênica de Plantas/genética , Hibridização In Situ , Redes e Vias Metabólicas , Pinus sylvestris/enzimologia , Pinus sylvestris/genética , Regiões Promotoras Genéticas/genética , Sementes/enzimologia , Espermidina Sintase/genética , Espermina/análogos & derivados , Espermina/metabolismo , Espermina Sintase/genética , Espermina Sintase/metabolismoRESUMO
During environmental changes, epigenetic processes can enable adaptive responses faster than natural selection. In plants, very little is known about the role of DNA methylation during long-term adaptation. Scots pine is a widely distributed coniferous species which must adapt to different environmental conditions throughout its long lifespan. Thus, epigenetic modifications may contribute towards this direction. We provide bisulfite next-generation sequencing data from the putative promoters and exons of eight adaptation-related genes (A3IP2, CCA1, COL1, COL2, FTL2, MFT1, PHYO, and ZTL) in three Scots pine populations located in northern and southern parts of Finland. DNA methylation levels were studied in the two seed tissues: the maternal megagametophyte which contributes to embryo viability, and the biparental embryo which represents the next generation. In most genes, differentially methylated cytosines (DMCs) were in line with our previously demonstrated gene expression differences found in the same Scots pine populations. In addition, we found a strong correlation of total methylation levels between the embryo and megagametophyte tissues of a given individual tree, which indicates that DNA methylation can be inherited from the maternal parent. In conclusion, our results imply that DNA methylation differences may contribute to the adaptation of Scots pine populations in different climatic conditions.
Assuntos
Adaptação Fisiológica , Metilação de DNA , Epigênese Genética , Pinus sylvestris , Pinus sylvestris/genética , Adaptação Fisiológica/genética , Genes de Plantas , Sulfitos , FinlândiaRESUMO
Plants have evolved a suite of photoreceptors to perceive information from the surrounding light conditions. The aim of this study was to examine photomorphogenic effects of light quality on the growth of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) seedlings representing southern (60 °N) and northern (68 °N) origins in Finland. We measured the growth characteristics and the expression of light-responsive genes from seedlings grown under two LED light spectra: (1) Retarder (blue and red wavelengths in ratio 0.7) inducing compact growth, and (2) Booster (moderate in blue, green and far-red wavelengths, and high intensity of red light) promoting shoot elongation. The results show that root elongation, biomass, and branching were reduced under Retarder spectrum in the seedlings representing both origins, while inhibition in seed germination and shoot elongation was mainly detected in the seedlings of northern origin. The expression of ZTL and HY5 was related to Scots pine growth under both light spectra. Moreover, the expression of PHYN correlated with growth when exposed to Retarder, whereas CRY2 expression was associated with growth under Booster. Our data indicates that blue light and the deficiency of far-red light limit the growth of Scots pine seedlings and that northern populations are more sensitive to blue light than southern populations. Furthermore, the data analyses suggest that ZTL and HY5 broadly participate in the light-mediated growth regulation of Scots pine, whereas PHYN responses to direct sunlight and the role of CRY2 is in shade avoidance. Altogether, our study extends the knowledge of light quality and differential gene expression affecting the early growth of Scots pines representing different latitudinal origins.