Distance-Independent Efficiency of Triplet Energy Transfer from π-Conjugated Organic Ligands to Lanthanide-Doped Nanoparticles.

Lanthanide-doped nanoparticles (LnNPs) possess unique optical properties and are employed in various optoelectronic and bioimaging applications. One fundamental limitation of LnNPs is their low absorption cross-section. This hurdle can be overcome through surface modification with organic chromophores with large absorption cross-sections. Controlling energy transfer from organic molecules to LnNPs is crucial for creating optically bright systems, yet the mechanisms are not well understood. Using pump-probe spectroscopy, we follow singlet energy transfer (SET) and triplet energy transfer (TET) in systems comprising different length 9,10-bis(phenylethynyl)anthracene (BPEA) derivatives coordinated onto ytterbium and neodymium-doped nanoparticles. Photoexcitation of the ligands forms singlet excitons, some of which convert to triplet excitons via intersystem crossing when coordinated to the LnNPs. The triplet generation rate and yield are strongly distance-dependent. Following their generation, TET occurs from the ligands to the LnNPs, exhibiting an exponential distance dependence, independent of solvent polarity, suggesting a concerted Dexter-type process with a damping coefficient of 0.60 Å-1. Nevertheless, TET occurs with near-unity efficiency for all BPEA derivatives due to the lack of other triplet deactivation pathways and long intrinsic triplet lifetimes. Thus, we find that close coupling is primarily important to ensure efficient triplet generation rather than efficient TET. Although SET is faster, we find its efficiency to be lower and more strongly distance-dependent than the TET efficiency. Our results present the first direct distance-dependent energy transfer measurements in LnNP@organic nanohybrids and establish the advantage of using the triplet manifold to achieve the most efficient energy transfer and best sensitization of LnNPs with π-conjugated ligands.

SERS Sensing of Dopamine with Fe(III)-Sensitized Nanogaps in Recleanable AuNP Monolayer Films.

Sensing of neurotransmitters (NTs) down to nm concentrations is demonstrated by utilizing self-assembled monolayers of plasmonic 60 nm Au nanoparticles in close-packed arrays immobilized onto glass substrates. Multiplicative surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy enhancements are achieved by integrating Fe(III) sensitizers into the precisely-defined <1 nm nanogaps, to target dopamine (DA) sensing. The transparent glass substrates allow for efficient access from both sides of the monolayer aggregate films by fluid and light, allowing repeated sensing in different analytes. Repeated reusability after analyte sensing is shown through oxygen plasma cleaning protocols, which restore pristine conditions for the nanogaps. Examining binding competition in multiplexed sensing of two catecholamine NTs, DA and epinephrine, reveals their bidentate binding and their interactions. These systems are promising for widespread microfluidic integration enabling a wide range of continuous biofluid monitoring for applications in precision health.

Raman Probing the Local Ultrastrong Coupling of Vibrational Plasmon Polaritons on Metallic Gratings.

Strong coupling of molecular vibrations with light creates polariton states, enabling control over many optical and chemical properties. However, the near-field signatures of strong coupling are difficult to map as most cavities are closed systems. Surface-enhanced Raman microscopy of open metallic gratings under vibrational strong coupling enables the observation of spatial polariton localization in the grating near field, without the need for scanning probe microscopies. The lower polariton is localized at the grating slots, displays a strongly asymmetric line shape, and gives greater plasmon-vibration coupling strength than measured in the far field. Within these slots, the local field strength pushes the system into the ultrastrong coupling regime. Models of strong coupling which explicitly include the spatial distribution of emitters can account for these effects. Such gratings enable exploration of the rich physics of polaritons, its impact on polariton chemistry under flow conditions, and the interplay between near- and far-field properties through vibrational polariton-enhanced Raman scattering.

Collective Mid-Infrared Vibrations in Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering.

Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) is typically assumed to occur at individual molecules neglecting intermolecular vibrational coupling. Here, we show instead how collective vibrations from infrared (IR) coupled dipoles are seen in SERS from molecular monolayers. Mixing IR-active molecules with IR-inactive spacer molecules controls the intermolecular separation. Intermolecular coupling leads to vibrational frequency upshifts up to 8 cm-1, tuning with the mixing fraction and IR dipole strength, in excellent agreement with microscopic models and density functional theory. These cooperative frequency shifts can be used as a ruler to measure intermolecular distance and disorder with angstrom resolution. We demonstrate this for photochemical reactions of 4-nitrothiophenol, which depletes the number of neighboring IR-active molecules and breaks the collective vibration, enabling direct tracking of the reaction. Collective molecular vibrations reshape SERS spectra and need to be considered in the analysis of vibrational spectra throughout analytical chemistry and sensing.

Elucidating the Role of Antisolvents on the Surface Chemistry and Optoelectronic Properties of CsPbBrxI3-x Perovskite Nanocrystals.

Colloidal lead-halide perovskite nanocrystals (LHP NCs) have emerged over the past decade as leading candidates for efficient next-generation optoelectronic devices, but their properties and performance critically depend on how they are purified. While antisolvents are widely used for purification, a detailed understanding of how the polarity of the antisolvent influences the surface chemistry and composition of the NCs is missing in the field. Here, we fill this knowledge gap by studying the surface chemistry of purified CsPbBrxI3-x NCs as the model system, which in itself is considered a promising candidate for pure-red light-emitting diodes and top-cells for tandem photovoltaics. Interestingly, we find that as the polarity of the antisolvent increases (from methyl acetate to acetone to butanol), there is a blueshift in the photoluminescence (PL) peak of the NCs along with a decrease in PL quantum yield (PLQY). Through transmission electron microscopy and X-ray photoemission spectroscopy measurements, we find that these changes in PL properties arise from antisolvent-induced iodide removal, which leads to a change in halide composition and, thus, the bandgap. Using detailed nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) measurements along with density functional theory calculations, we propose that more polar antisolvents favor the detachment of the oleic acid and oleylamine ligands, which undergo amide condensation reactions, leading to the removal of iodide anions from the NC surface bound to these ligands. This work shows that careful selection of low-polarity antisolvents is a critical part of designing the synthesis of NCs to achieve high PLQYs with minimal defect-mediated phase segregation.

Design rules for catalysis in single-particle plasmonic nanogap reactors with precisely aligned molecular monolayers.

Plasmonic nanostructures can both drive and interrogate light-driven catalytic reactions. Sensitive detection of reaction pathways is achieved by confining optical fields near the active surface. However, effective control of the reaction kinetics remains a challenge to utilize nanostructure constructs as efficient chemical reactors. Here we present a nanoreactor construct exhibiting high catalytic and optical efficiencies, based on a nanoparticle-on-mirror (NPoM) platform. We observe and track pathways of the Pd-catalysed C-C coupling reaction of molecules within a set of nanogaps presenting different chemical surfaces. Atomic monolayer coatings of Pd on the different Au facets enable tuning of the reaction kinetics of surface-bound molecules. Systematic analysis shows the catalytic efficiency of NPoM-based nanoreactors greatly improves on platforms based on aggregated nanoparticles. More importantly, we show Pd monolayers on the nanoparticle or on the mirror play significantly different roles in the surface reaction kinetics. Our data provides clear evidence for catalytic dependencies on molecular configuration in well-defined nanostructures. Such nanoreactor constructs therefore yield clearer design rules for plasmonic catalysis.

Robust consistent single quantum dot strong coupling in plasmonic nanocavities.

Strong coupling between a single quantum emitter and an optical cavity (at rate Ω) accesses fundamental quantum optics and provides an essential building block for photonic quantum technologies. However, the minimum mode volume of conventional dielectric cavities restricts their operation to cryogenic temperature for strong coupling. Here we harness surface self-assembly to make deterministic strong coupling at room temperature using CdSe/CdS quantum dots (QDs) in nanoparticle-on-mirror (NPoM) plasmonic nanocavities. We achieve a fabrication yield of ~70% for single QD strong coupling by optimizing their size and nano-assembly. A clear and reliable Rabi splitting is observed both in the scattering of each nanocavity and their photoluminescence, which are however not equal. Integrating these quantum elements with electrical pumping allows demonstration of strong coupling in their electroluminescence. This advance provides a straightforward way to achieve practical quantum devices at room temperature, and opens up exploration of their nonlinear, electrical, and quantum correlation properties.

Extensive photochemical restructuring of molecule-metal surfaces under room light.

The molecule-metal interface is of paramount importance for many devices and processes, and directly involved in photocatalysis, molecular electronics, nanophotonics, and molecular (bio-)sensing. Here the photostability of this interface is shown to be sensitive even to room light levels for specific molecules and metals. Optical spectroscopy is used to track photoinduced migration of gold atoms when functionalised with different thiolated molecules that form uniform monolayers on Au. Nucleation and growth of characteristic surface metal nanostructures is observed from the light-driven adatoms. By watching the spectral shifts of optical modes from nanoparticles used to precoat these surfaces, we identify processes involved in the photo-migration mechanism and the chemical groups that facilitate it. This photosensitivity of the molecule-metal interface highlights the significance of optically induced surface reconstruction. In some catalytic contexts this can enhance activity, especially utilising atomically dispersed gold. Conversely, in electronic device applications such reconstructions introduce problematic aging effects.

Direct laser writing of hydrophobic and hydrophilic valves in the same material applied to centrifugal microfluidics.

In this study, we utilize nanosecond and femtosecond direct laser writing for the generation of hydrophobic and hydrophilic microfluidic valves on a centrifugal microfluidic disk made of polycarbonate, without the need for wet-chemistry. Application of a femtosecond (fs) laser at 800 nm resulted in an increased contact angle, from ∼80° to ∼160°, thereby inducing the formation of a hydrophobic surface. In contrast, employing a nanosecond (ns) laser at 248 nm led to the formation of superhydrophilic surfaces. Morphological studies identified the enhancement in the surface roughness for the hydrophobic surfaces and the creation of smooth patterns for the hydrophilic surfaces. Chemical modifications in the laser-ablated samples were confirmed via Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis. These spectroscopic examinations revealed an increase of hydrophilic chemical groups on both surfaces, with a more pronounced increase on the nanosecond laser-modified surface. Furthermore, these surfaces were used as a case study for centrifugal microfluidic valves. These modified surfaces demonstrated peculiar pressure responses. Specifically, the hydrophobic valves necessitated a 29% increase in pressure for droplet passage through a microchannel. On the other hand, the superhydrophilic valves exhibited enhanced wettability, decreasing the pressure requirement for fluid flow through the modified area by 39%. However, similarly to the hydrophobic valves, the fluid exiting the hydrophilic valve area required an increased pressure. Overall, our study shows the potential for tailoring valve functionality in microfluidic systems through precise surface modifications using laser technology.

Controlling Atomic-Scale Restructuring and Cleaning of Gold Nanogap Multilayers for Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Sensing.

We demonstrate the reliable creation of multiple layers of Au nanoparticles in random close-packed arrays with sub-nm gaps as a sensitive surface-enhanced Raman scattering substrate. Using oxygen plasma etching, all the original molecules creating the nanogaps can be removed and replaced with scaffolding ligands that deliver extremely consistent gap sizes below 1 nm. This allows precision tailoring of the chemical environment of the nanogaps which is crucial for practical Raman sensing applications. Because the resulting aggregate layers are easily accessible from opposite sides by fluids and by light, high-performance fluidic sensing cells are enabled. The ability to cyclically clean off analytes and reuse these films is shown, exemplified by sensing of toluene, volatile organic compounds, and paracetamol, among others.

Photoluminescence upconversion in monolayer WSe2 activated by plasmonic cavities through resonant excitation of dark excitons.

Anti-Stokes photoluminescence (PL) is light emission at a higher photon energy than the excitation, with applications in optical cooling, bioimaging, lasing, and quantum optics. Here, we show how plasmonic nano-cavities activate anti-Stokes PL in WSe2 monolayers through resonant excitation of a dark exciton at room temperature. The optical near-fields of the plasmonic cavities excite the out-of-plane transition dipole of the dark exciton, leading to light emission from the bright exciton at higher energy. Through statistical measurements on hundreds of plasmonic cavities, we show that coupling to the dark exciton leads to a near hundred-fold enhancement of the upconverted PL intensity. This is further corroborated by experiments in which the laser excitation wavelength is tuned across the dark exciton. We show that a precise nanoparticle geometry is key for a consistent enhancement, with decahedral nanoparticle shapes providing an efficient PL upconversion. Finally, we demonstrate a selective and reversible switching of the upconverted PL via electrochemical gating. Our work introduces the dark exciton as an excitation channel for anti-Stokes PL in WSe2 and paves the way for large-area substrates providing nanoscale optical cooling, anti-Stokes lasing, and radiative engineering of excitons.

Understanding the Chemical Mechanism behind Photoinduced Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy.

Photoinduced enhanced Raman spectroscopy (PIERS) is a new surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) modality with a 680% Raman signal enhancement of adsorbed analytes over that of SERS. Despite the explosion in recent demonstrations, the PIERS mechanism remains undetermined. Using X-ray and time-resolved optical spectroscopies, electron microscopy, cyclic voltammetry, and density functional theory simulations, we elucidate the atomic-scale mechanism behind PIERS. Stable PIERS substrates were fabricated using self-organized arrays of TiO2 nanotubes with controlled oxygen vacancy doping and size-controlled silver nanoparticles. The key source of PIERS vs SERS enhancement is an increase in the Raman polarizability of the adsorbed analyte upon photoinduced charge transfer. A balance between improved crystallinity, which enhances charge transfer due to higher electron mobility but decreases light absorption, and increased oxygen vacancy defect concentration, which increases light absorption, is critical. This work enables the rational design of PIERS substrates for sensing.

Theory of strong coupling between molecules and surface plasmons on a grating.

The strong coupling of molecules with surface plasmons results in hybrid states which are part molecule, part surface-bound light. Since molecular resonances may acquire the spatial coherence of plasmons, which have mm-scale propagation lengths, strong-coupling with molecular resonances potentially enables long-range molecular energy transfer. Gratings are often used to couple incident light to surface plasmons, by scattering the otherwise non-radiative surface plasmon inside the light-line. We calculate the dispersion relation for surface plasmons strongly coupled to molecular resonances when grating scattering is involved. By treating the molecules as independent oscillators rather than the more typically considered single collective dipole, we find the full multi-band dispersion relation. This approach offers a natural way to include the dark states in the dispersion. We demonstrate that for a molecular resonance tuned near the crossing point of forward and backward grating-scattered plasmon modes, the interaction between plasmons and molecules gives a five-band dispersion relation, including a bright state not captured in calculations using a single collective dipole. We also show that the role of the grating in breaking the translational invariance of the system appears in the position-dependent coupling between the molecules and the surface plasmon. The presence of the grating is thus not only important for the experimental observation of molecule-surface-plasmon coupling, but also provides an additional design parameter that tunes the system.

Giant mid-IR resonant coupling to molecular vibrations in sub-nm gaps of plasmonic multilayer metafilms.

Nanomaterials capable of confining light are desirable for enhancing spectroscopies such as Raman scattering, infrared absorption, and nonlinear optical processes. Plasmonic superlattices have shown the ability to host collective resonances in the mid-infrared, but require stringent fabrication processes to create well-ordered structures. Here, we demonstrate how short-range-ordered Au nanoparticle multilayers on a mirror, self-assembled by a sub-nm molecular spacer, support collective plasmon-polariton resonances in the visible and infrared, continuously tunable beyond 11 µm by simply varying the nanoparticle size and number of layers. The resulting molecule-plasmon system approaches vibrational strong coupling, and displays giant Fano dip strengths, SEIRA enhancement factors ~ 106, light-matter coupling strengths g ~ 100 cm-1, Purcell factors ~ 106, and mode volume compression factors ~ 108. The collective plasmon-polariton mode is highly robust to nanoparticle vacancy disorder and is sustained by the consistent gap size defined by the molecular spacer. Structural disorder efficiently couples light into the gaps between the multilayers and mirror, enabling Raman and infrared sensing of sub-picolitre sample volumes.

The effect of caesium alloying on the ultrafast structural dynamics of hybrid organic-inorganic halide perovskites.

Hybrid inorganic-organic perovskites have attracted considerable attention over recent years as promising processable electronic materials. In particular, the rich structural dynamics of these 'soft' materials has become a subject of investigation and debate due to their direct influence on the perovskites' optoelectronic properties. Significant effort has focused on understanding the role and behaviour of the organic cations within the perovskite, as their rotational dynamics may be linked to material stability, heterogeneity and performance in (opto)electronic devices. To this end, we use two-dimensional IR spectroscopy (2DIR) to understand the effect of partial caesium alloying on the rotational dynamics of the methylammonium cation in the archetypal hybrid perovskite CH3NH3PbI3. We find that caesium incorporation primarily inhibits the slower 'reorientational jump' modes of the organic cation, whilst a smaller effect on the fast 'wobbling time' may be due to distortions and rigidisation of the inorganic cuboctahedral cage. 2DIR centre-line-slope analysis further reveals that while static disorder increases with caesium substitution, the dynamic disorder (reflected in the phase memory of the N-H stretching mode of methylammonium) is largely independent of caesium addition. Our results contribute to the development of a unified model of cation dynamics within organohalide perovskites.