Photoclick reaction for rapid and simple fluorescence detection of itaconic acid and its derivatives in fungal cultures.

Itaconic acid (IA) and its derivatives produced by fungi have significant potential as industrial feedstocks. We recently developed a method for the detection of these compounds based on their terminal C-C double bonds. However, the presence of reducing agents, such as glucose and other fungal metabolites, leads to undesirable side reactions, and consequently, deteriorates the detection specificity. Therefore, we developed a fluorescence detection method for IA and its derivatives underpinned by a photoclick reaction. The photoclick reaction between conjugated IA and 5-(4-methoxyphenyl)-2-phenyl-2H-tetrazole under UV irradiation affords a fluorescent product. No fluorescence was detected when succinic acid was subjected to the reaction, indicating that a terminal C-C double bond is required to induce fluorescence. Optimal reaction conditions were determined to be a combination of 80% final dimethyl sulfoxide concentration, 30-s UV irradiation, and a pH of 2. Two weeks after the reaction at 4 °C, 89.0% of the initial intensity was retained, indicating that the reaction product was relatively stable. Glucose and kojic acid did not induce fluorescence after the reaction, indicating that these reducing agents did not affect fluorescence. IA was detected in a culture of Aspergillus terreus, and its quantification using the photoclick reaction was in agreement with the results obtained using high-performance liquid chromatography analysis. Interestingly, the IA derivative avenaciolide present in submillimolar quantities was also detectable in a culture of Aspergillus avenaceus using this method. The established method will enable the development of high-throughput screening methods to identify fungi that produce IA and its derivatives.

Cellulose-fueled microbial fuel cells equipped with a bipolar membrane using hydrogen phosphate as the final electron acceptor.

OBJECTIVES: A bipolar membrane microbial fuel cell (bMFC) is used to generate electricity using cellulose in phosphate buffer solution as fuel, and the mechanism of electricity generation is elucidated from five reference experiments. RESULTS: The bMFC was operated for 20 days using cellulose as fuel and Cellulomonas fimi. In the first reference experiment, no microorganism was used. In the second experiment, a cation-exchange membrane was used instead of a bipolar membrane. In the third experiment, the bipolar membrane was used in the opposite orientation as in the main experiment. In the fourth experiment, D2O was used instead of H2O in the cathode chamber. In the final experiment, the tris-maleate buffer was used instead of a phosphate buffer. Sufficient power generation did not occur in either reference experiment. CONCLUSIONS: The bMFC continuously generated electricity for 20 days, and elucidated H+ and OH- react in bipolar membrane, where the counter cation of dihydrogen phosphate served as the final electron acceptor.

Itaconic acid derivatives: structure, function, biosynthesis, and perspectives.

Itaconic acid possessing a vinylidene group, which is mainly produced by fungi, is used as a biobased platform chemical and shows distinctive bioactivities. On the other hand, some fungi and lichens produce itaconic acid derivatives possessing itaconic acid skeleton, and the number of the derivatives is currently more than seventy. Based on the molecular structures, they can be categorized into two groups, alkylitaconic acids and α-methylene-γ-butyrolactones. Interestingly, some itaconic acid derivatives show versatile functions such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, and plant growth-regulating activities. The vinylidene group of itaconic acid derivatives likely participates in these functions. It is suggested that α-methylene-γ-butyrolactones are biosynthesized from alkylitaconic acids which are first biosynthesized from acyl-CoA and oxaloacetic acid. Some modifying enzymes such as hydroxylase and dehydratase are likely involved in the further modification after biosynthesis of their precursors. This contributes to the diversity of itaconic acid derivatives. In this review, we summarize their structures, functions, and biosynthetic pathways together with a discussion of a strategy for the industrial use. KEY POINTS: • Itaconic acid derivatives can be categorized into alkylitaconic acids and α-methylene-γ-butyrolactones. • The vinylidene group of itaconic acid derivatives likely participates in their versatile function. • It is suggested that α-methylene-γ-butyrolactones are biosynthesized from alkylitaconic acids which are first synthesized from acyl-CoA and oxaloacetic acid.

Engineering Escherichia coli for Direct Production of 1,2-Propanediol and 1,3-Propanediol from Starch.

Diols are versatile chemicals used for multiple manufacturing products. In some previous studies, Escherichia coli has been engineered to produce 1,2-propanediol (1,2-PDO) and 1,3-propanediol (1,3-PDO) from glucose. However, there are no reports on the direct production of these diols from starch instead of glucose as a substrate. In this study, we directly produced 1,2-PDO and 1,3-PDO from starch using E. coli engineered for expressing a heterologous α-amylase, along with the expression of 1,2-PDO and 1,3-PDO synthetic genes. For this, the recombinant plasmids, pVUB3-SBA harboring amyA gene for α-amylase production, pSR5 harboring pct, pduP, and yahK genes for 1,2-PDO production, and pSR8 harboring gpd1-gpp2, dhaB123, gdrAB, and dhaT genes for 1,3-PDO production, were constructed. Subsequently, E. coli BW25113 (ΔpflA) and BW25113 strains were transformed with pVUB3-SBA, pSR5, and/or pSR8. Using these transformants, direct production of 1,2-PDO and 1,3-PDO from starch was demonstrated under microaerobic condition. As a result, the maximum production titers of 1,2-PDO and 1,3-PDO from 1% glucose as a sole carbon source were 13 mg/L and 150 mg/L, respectively. The maximum production titers from 1% starch were similar levels (30 mg/L 1,2-PDO and 120 mg/L 1,3-PDO). These data indicate that starch can be an alternative carbon source for the production of 1,2-PDO and 1,3-PDO in engineered E. coli. This technology could simplify the upstream process of diol bioproduction.

Engineering Lactococcus lactis for D-Lactic Acid Production from Starch.

Bioprocess development is a current requirement to enhance the global production of D-lactic acid. Herein, we report a new bioprocess for D-lactic acid production directly from starch using engineered Lactococcus lactis NZ9000. To modify L. lactis as a D-lactic acid producer, its major endogenous L-lactate dehydrogenase (L-Ldh) gene was replaced with a heterologous D-Ldh gene from Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. lactis JCM 1107. The resulting strain AH1 showed a somewhat slower growth rate but similar lactic acid production compared to those of the intact strain when cultivated with glucose as a carbon source. The chemical purity of D-lactic acid produced by L. lactis AH1 was 93.8%, and the enzymatic activities of D- and L-Ldh in AH1 were 1.54 U/mL and 0.05 U/mL, respectively. Next, a heterologous α-amylase gene from Streptococcus bovis NRIC 1535 cloned into an expression vector pNZ8048 was introduced into AH1. The resulting strain AH2 showed an amylolytic activity of 0.26 U/mL in the culture supernatant. Direct production of D-lactic acid from starch as the carbon source was demonstrated using L. lactis AH2, resulting in D-lactic acid production at a concentration of 15.0 g/L after 24 h cultivation. To our knowledge, this is the first report on D-lactic acid production in engineered L. lactis.

Genome and fermentation analyses of Enterococcus faecalis DB-5 isolated from Japanese Mandarin orange: An assessment of potential application in lactic acid production.

Enterococcus faecalis strain DB-5 is a lactic acid bacterium newly isolated from the Japanese mandarin orange (mikan). The DB-5 strain produces organic acid from various carbohydrate sources including glycerol and starch. To gain deeper insights into its potential application in lactic acid fermentation (LAF), the genome and fermentation analyses of E. faecalis DB-5 were performed. Whole genome sequencing was carried out using the DNBSEQ platform. After trimming and assembly, the total size of the assembled genome was revealed to be 3,048,630 bp, distributed into 63 contigs with an N50 value of 203,673. The genome has 37.2% GC content, 2928 coding DNA sequences, and 54 putative RNA genes. The DB-5 strain harbored two l-lactate dehydrogenases (L-LDHs), both of which conserved the catalytic domain sequences. The optical purity measurement showed that strain DB-5 is homofermentative and produced only l-lactic acid (LA), which correlated with genome-based pathway analysis. To confirm its LA productivity at high temperatures, open repeated batch fermentation was performed at 45 °C using sucrose as a carbon source. The volumetric LA productivity of DB-5 was averaged at 3.66 g L-1 h-1 for 24 h during the 3rd to 11th fermentation cycles. E. faecalis DB-5 could efficiently convert around 94% of sucrose to LA throughout the fermentation cycles at 45 °C. These genomic characteristics and fermentation properties of E. faecalis DB-5 provide beneficial information for a deeper understanding of the functional properties of future high-temperature LAFs from biomass resources.

Production of glycerate from glucose using engineered Escherichiacoli.

In this study, glycerate was produced from glucose using engineered Escherichia coli BW25113. Plasmid pSR3 carrying gpd1 and gpp2 encoding two isoforms of glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and plasmid pLB2 carrying aldO encoding alditol oxidase from Streptomyces violaceoruber were introduced into E. coli to enable the production of glycerate from glucose via glycerol. Disruptions of garK and glxK genes in the E. coli genome were performed to minimize the consumption of glycerate produced. As a result, E. coli carrying these plasmids could produce nearly three times higher concentration of glycerate (0.50 ± 0.01 g/L) from 10 g/L glucose compared to E. coli EG_2 (0.14 ± 0.02 g/L). In M9 medium, disruption of garK and glxK resulted in an impaired growth rate with low production of glycerate, while supplementation of 0.5 g/L casamino acids and 0.5 g/L manganese sulfate to the medium replenished the growth rate and elevated the glycerate titer. Further disruption of glpF, encoding a glycerol transporter, increased the glycerate production to 0.80 ± 0.00 g/L. MR2 medium improved the glycerate production titers and specific productivities of E. coli EG_4, EG_5, and EG_6. Upscale production of glycerate was carried out in a jar fermentor with MR2 medium using E. coli EG_6, resulting in an improvement in glycerate production up to 2.37 ± 0.46 g/L with specific productivity at 0.34 ± 0.11 g-glycerate/g-cells. These results indicate that E. coli is an appropriate host for glycerate production from glucose.

The first report of enzymatic transglycosylation catalyzed by family GH84 N-acetyl-ß-d-glucosaminidase using a sugar oxazoline derivative as a glycosyl donor.

O-Glycosylated N-acetyl-ß-d-glucosamine-selective N-acetyl-ß-d-glucosaminidase (O-GlcNAcase), belonging to glycoside hydrolase family 84 (GH84), is known as a retaining glycosidase with the possibility of enzymatic transglycosylation. However, no enzymatic transglycosylation catalyzed by GH84 O-GlcNAcase has been reported. Here, enzymatic transglycosylation catalyzed by GH84 O-GlcNAcase was first reported. The enzymatic transglycosylation catalyzed by the GH84 O-GlcNAcase from Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron (BtGH84 O-GlcNAcase) was attained using 1,2-oxazoline derivative of N-acetyl-d-glucosamine (GlcNAc oxazoline) as a glycosyl donor substrate. The ß-linked N-acetyl-d-glucosamine (GlcNAc) derivative was enzymatically synthesized using N-(2-hydroxyethyl)acrylamide as an acceptor substrate. Interestingly, the ß1,6-linked disaccharide derivative of GlcNAc was also obtained in the case of using the GlcNAc derivative with a triazole-linked acrylamide group as an acceptor substrate. Additionally, a one-pot chemo-enzymatic transglycosylation starting from unprotected GlcNAc through GlcNAc oxazoline successfully showed through the combination with the direct synthesis of GlcNAc oxazoline in water and the enzymatic transglycosylation.

Biobased polymers: synthesis of graft copolymers and comb polymers using lactic acid macromonomer and properties of the product polymers.

For developing broader application of biobased polymers, graft copolymers and comb polymers having poly(lactic acid) (PLA) side chains have been synthesized by using a macromonomer technique. PLA macromonomers (MMm) having a methacryloyl polymerizable group with different PLA chain length with an average length m = 4, 6, 8, 12, 18, and 30 were prepared via ring-opening polymerization of l-lactide using hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) initiator catalyzed by Sn(Oct)(2). Radical polymerization behaviors of these macromonomers were examined. Radical copolymerization of MMm (m = 4, 6, and 8), with vinyl monomers like n-butyl methacrylate (BMA) and n-butyl acrylate (BA) in water as the reaction medium, gave stable miniemulsions of poly[n-butyl (meth)acrylate-graft-lactic acid]s [PB(M)A-g-PLAm]. MMm with m value higher than 12, however, gave aggregate products in a minor amount besides miniemulsions in a major amount, producing not a stable emulsion system of graft copolymers. The solution copolymerization, on the other hand, produced a wider variety of the graft copolymers, where a wider range of MMm (even m ≥ 12) can be employed. In a 1,4-dioxane solution, the radical copolymerization of MMm with BMA and methyl methacrylate (MMA) gave various graft copolymers [PB(M)MA-g-PLAm]. A new type of comb polymers (PMMm) having PLAm as pendant side chains were obtained by radical homopolymerization of MMm in a 1,4-dioxane solution. The graft copolymers and comb polymers obtained here are amorphous. Physical properties of the polymers from miniemulsions suggested them to be applicable for coatings or elastic materials which are environmentally desirable as a new class of biobased polymers. In addition, the present approach provided fundamental information on relationships between the length of PLA side chain and the bulk properties of the product polymers.

Production of R- and S-1,2-propanediol in engineered Lactococcus lactis.

1,2-propanediol (1,2-PDO) is a versatile chemical used in multiple manufacturing processes. To date, some engineered and non-engineered microbes, such as Escherichia coli, Lactobacillus buchneri, and Clostridium thermosaccharolyticum, have been used to produce 1,2-PDO. In this study, we demonstrated the production of R- and S-1,2-PDO using engineered Lactococcus lactis. The L- and D-lactic acid-producing L. lactis strains NZ9000 and AH1 were transformed with the plasmid pNZ8048-ppy harboring pct, pduP, and yahK genes for 1,2-PDO biosynthesis, resulting in L. lactis LL1 and LL2, respectively. These engineered L. lactis produced S- and R-1,2-PDO at concentrations of 0.69 and 0.50 g/L with 94.4 and 78.0% ee optical purities, respectively, from 1% glucose after 72 h of cultivation. Both 1% mannitol and 1% gluconate were added instead of glucose to the culture of L. lactis LL1 to supply NADH and NADPH to the 1,2-PDO production pathway, resulting in 75% enhancement of S-1,2-PDO production. Production of S-1,2-PDO from 5% mannitol and 5% gluconate was demonstrated using L. lactis LL1 with a pH-stat approach. This resulted in S-1,2-PDO production at a concentration of 1.88 g/L after 96 h of cultivation. To our knowledge, this is the first report on the production of R- and S-1,2-PDO using engineered lactic acid bacteria.

Microbial fuel cells using α-amylase-displaying Escherichia coli with starch as fuel.

Escherichia coli JM109 (pGV3-SBA) can assimilate starch by fusing the starch-digesting enzyme α-amylase from Streptococcus bovis NRIC1535 to an OprI' lipoprotein anchor on the cell membrane. This study shows microbial fuel cells (MFCs) development using this recombinant type of E. coli and starch as fuel. We observed the current generation of MFCs with E. coli JM109 (pGV3-SBA) for 120 h. During this period, it consumed 7.1 g/L of starch. A mediator in the form of anthraquinone-2,6-disulfonic acid disodium salt at 0.2, 0.4, and 0.8 mM was added to the MFCs. The highest maximum-current density (271 mA/m2) and maximum-power density (29.3 mW/m2) performances occurred in the 0.4 mM mediator solution. Coulomb yields were calculated as 3.4%, 3.0%, and 3.5% in 1.0, 5.0, and 10.0 g/L of initial starch, respectively. The concentrations of acetic acid, succinic acid, fumaric acid, and ethanol as metabolites were determined. In particular, 38.3 mM of ethanol was produced from 7.1 g/L of starch. This study suggests the use of recombinant E. coli which can assimilate starch present in starch-fueled MFCs. Moreover, it proposes the possibility of gene recombination technology for using wide variety of biomass as fuel and improving MFC's performance.

One-pot chemoenzymatic synthesis of glycopolymers from unprotected sugars via glycosidase-catalysed glycosylation using triazinyl glycosides.

Glycopolymers were successfully synthesised from unprotected sugars in aqueous media via a one-pot chemoenzymatic process of three reactions; the direct synthesis of 4,6-dimethoxy-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl glycosides from unprotected sugars, a glycosidase-catalysed glycosylation using the triazinyl glycoside to afford glycomonomers and a radical polymerisation. The resulting glycopolymers exhibited specific interactions with the corresponding lectin as glycoclusters.

Aqueous One-pot Synthesis of Glycopolymers by Glycosidase-catalyzed Glycomonomer Synthesis Using 4,6-Dimetoxy Triazinyl Glycoside Followed by Radical Polymerization.

Glycopolymers have attracted increased attention as functional polymeric materials, and simple methods for synthesizing glycopolymers remain needed. This paper reports the aqueous one-pot and chemoenzymatic synthesis of four types of glycopolymers via two reactions: the ß-galactosidase-catalyzed glycomonomer synthesis using 4,6-dimetoxy triazinyl ß-D-galactopyranoside and hydroxy group-containing (meth)acrylamide and (meth)acrylate derivatives as the activated glycosyl donor substrate and as the glycomonomer precursors, respectively, followed by radical copolymerization of the resulting glycomonomer and excess glycomonomer precursor without isolating the glycomonomers. The resulting glycopolymers bearing galactose moieties exhibited specific and strong interactions with the lectin peanut agglutinin as glycoclusters.

Microbial Screening Based on the Mizoroki-Heck Reaction Permits Exploration of Hydroxyhexylitaconic-Acid-Producing Fungi in Soils.

Recently, we developed a unique microbial screening method based on the Mizoroki-Heck reaction for itaconic acid (IA)-producing fungi. This method revealed that 37 out of 240 fungal strains isolated from soils produce vinyl compounds, including IA. In this study, we further characterized these compounds in order to verify that the screening method permits the isolation of fungi that produce other vinyl compounds, excluding IA. HPLC analysis showed that 11 out of 37 isolated strains produced IA, similar to Aspergillus terreus S12-1. Surprisingly, the other 8 isolated strains produced two vinyl compounds with HPLC retention times different from that of IA. From these strains, the vinyl compounds of Aspergillus niger S17-5 were characterized. Mass spectrometric and NMR analyses showed that they were identical to 8-hydroxyhexylitaconic acid (8-HHIA) and 9-HHIA. This finding showed that 8-HHIA- and 9-HHIA-producing fungi, as well as IA-producing fungi, are ubiquitously found in soils. Neither 8-HHIA nor 9-HHIA showed antibacterial or anti-inflammatory activities. Interestingly, 8-HHIA and 9-HHIA showed cytotoxicity against the human cervical cancer cell line (HeLa) and human diploid cell line (MRC-5), and MRC-5 only, respectively, compared to IA at the same concentration. This study indicates that the screening method could easily discover fungi producing 8-HHIA and 9-HHIA in soils.

Correction: Sano, M., et al. Microbial Screening Based on the Mizoroki-Heck Reaction Permits Exploration of Hydroxyhexylitaconic-Acid-Producing Fungi in Soils. Microorganisms 2020, 8, 648.

The authors wish to make the following correction to this paper [...].

Biobased Poly(itaconic Acid-co-10-Hydroxyhexylitaconic Acid)s: Synthesis and Thermal Characterization.

Renewable vinyl compounds itaconic acid (IA) and its derivative 10-hydroxyhexylitaconic acid (10-HHIA) are naturally produced by fungi from biomass. This provides the opportunity to develop new biobased polyvinyls from IA and 10-HHIA monomers. In this study, we copolymerized these monomers at different ratios through free radical aqueous polymerization with potassium peroxodisulfate as an initiator, resulting in poly(IA-co-10-HHIA)s with different monomer compositions. We characterized the thermal properties of the polymers by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). The nuclear magnetic resonance analysis and the gel permeation chromatography showed that the polymerization conversion, yield, and the molecular weights (weight-averaged Mw and number-averaged Mn) of the synthesized poly(IA-co-10-HHIA)s decreased with increasing 10-HHIA content. It is suggested that the hydroxyhexyl group of 10-HHIA inhibited the polymerization. The TGA results indicated that the poly(IA-co-10-HHIA)s continuously decomposed as temperature increased. The FT-IR analysis suggested that the formation of the hydrogen bonds between the carboxyl groups of IA and 10-HHIA in the polymer chains was promoted by heating and consequently the polymer dehydration occurred. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that biobased polyvinyls were synthesized using naturally occurring IA derivatives.

Engineered membrane superchannel improves bioremediation potential of dioxin-degrading bacteria.

Sphingomonas sp. A1 possesses specialized membrane structures termed 'superchannels' that enable the direct incorporation of macromolecules into the cell. We have engineered two related sphingomonads, the dioxin-degrading S. wittichii RW1 and the polypropylene glycol-degrading S. subarctica IFO 16058(T), to incorporate this superchannel into their cell membranes. In both cases the bioremediation capability of the organisms was substantially increased pointing at the potential of this approach as a general strategy to improve bacterial degradation of hazardous compounds in the environment.

DISCOVER: A facile structure-based screening method for vinyl compound producing microbes.

Here we report a novel structure-based microbial screening method for vinyl compound discovery, DISCOVER (direct screening method based on coupling reactions for vinyl compound producers). Through a two-step screening procedure based on selective coupling reactions of terminal alkenes, the thiol-ene reaction (1st step of screening) and Mizoroki-Heck reaction, followed by iodine test (2nd step of screening), microbes producing vinyl compounds like itaconic acid (IA) can be isolated from soil samples. In the 1st step of screening, soil sources are plated on agar medium supplemented with an antimicrobial agent, α-thioglycerol (TG), and a radical initiator, VA-044 (VA). In the 2nd step of screening, vinyl compounds produced in the cultures are labelled with iodobenzene via the Mizoroki-Heck reaction, followed by an iodine test, leading to the detection and characterisation of labelled products. We evaluated the validity of DISCOVER using IA and its producer Aspergillus terreus. Experimental data supported our hypothesis that IA reacts with TG in the medium via the thiol-ene reaction and consequently, A. terreus rapidly forms colonies on the agar medium because of the loss of the antimicrobial activity of TG. Using DISCOVER, high throughput and selective isolation of A. terreus strains producing IA was possible from soils.

Direct electron transfer of Cellulomonas fimi and microbial fuel cells fueled by cellulose.

The strain of Cellulomonas fimi NBRC 15513 can generate electricity with cellulose as fuel without mediator using a single chamber type microbial fuel cell (MFC) which had 100 mL of chamber and 50 cm2 of the air cathode. The MFCs were operated over five days and showed the maximum current density of 10.0 ± 1.8 mA/m2, the maximum power density of 0.74 ± 0.07 mW/m2 and the ohmic resistance of 6.9 kΩ. According to the results of cyclic voltammetry, the appearance of the oxidation or reduction peak was not observed from the cell removed solution. The fact is that C. fimi does not secrete mediator-like compounds, while the oxidation peak was observed at +0.68 V from the phosphate buffer containing the washed cell. The peak appearance was caused by the electron transfer activity of which corresponds to cytochrome c, and disappeared after adding antimycin A which inhibits the electron transfer activity. The cell was alive throughout the experiment as the result of a colony forming unit on Luria-Bertani agar plates. This was thought that cytochrome c was on the membrane surface of the living cell and played a role in the direct electron transfer between the cells and anode.

A high-throughput screening method based on the Mizoroki-Heck reaction for isolating itaconic acid-producing fungi from soils.

In this study, we report a novel method based on the Mizoroki-Heck reaction followed by an iodine test for the screening of itaconic acid-producing fungi from soils. This method is simple, rapid, and requires 10 µL of culture; results are obtained within 1.5 h. The detection limit of itaconic acid in the cultures was 0.13 mM. This is the first report on the direct screening of itaconic acid-producing fungi using a coupling reaction.