What You Don't Know Can Hurt You: Missing Data and Partial Credit Model Estimates.

The authors investigated the effect of missing completely at random (MCAR) item responses on partial credit model (PCM) parameter estimates in a longitudinal study of Positive Affect. Participants were 307 adults from the older cohort of the Notre Dame Study of Health and Well-Being (Bergeman and Deboeck, 2014) who completed questionnaires including Positive Affect items for 56 days. Additional missing responses were introduced to the data, randomly replacing 20%, 50%, and 70% of the responses on each item and each day with missing values, in addition to the existing missing data. Results indicated that item locations and person trait level measures diverged from the original estimates as the level of degradation from induced missing data increased. In addition, standard errors of these estimates increased with the level of degradation. Thus, MCAR data does damage the quality and precision of PCM estimates.

Measuring positive and negative affect in older adults over 56 days: comparing trait level scoring methods using the partial credit model.

Positive (PA) and negative affect (NA) are important constructs in health and well-being research. Good longitudinal measurement is crucial to conducting meaningful research on relationships between affect, health, and well-being across the lifespan. One common affect measure, the PANAS, has been evaluated thoroughly with factor analysis, but not with Racsh-based latent trait models (RLTMs) such as the Partial Credit Model (PCM), and not longitudinally. Current longitudinal RLTMs can computationally handle few occasions of data. The present study compares four methods of anchoring PCMs across 56 occasions to longitudinally evaluate the psychometric properties of the PANAS plus additional items. Anchoring item parameters on mean parameter values across occasions produced more desirable results than using no anchor, using first occasion parameters as anchors, or allowing anchor values to vary across occasions. Results indicated problems with NA items, including poor category utilization, gaps in the item distribution, and a lack of easy-to-endorse items. PA items had much more desirable psychometric qualities.

Dynamic Systems, Contextual Influences, and Multiple Timescales: Emotion Regulation as a Resilience Resource.

We need to understand how psychosocial resources develop, identify the influences that threaten their maintenance, detect the circumstances under which these resources are used, and elucidate the factors that support and promote their growth. Three important components to studying the development of resilience include its dynamic nature, context, and timescale of measurement. Dynamic systems (DS) approaches focus on physiological and psychological structures underling the development of resilience by explicitly mapping parameters of change onto their corresponding aspects of functioning. Previous research has captured emotion regulation within individuals, across traits, and in close personal relationships to show how these methods depict dynamic regulation/resilience resources and their influence on outcomes of interest. The use of multi-time scaled data informs how daily emotion regulation is disrupted in the context of stress to produce dysregulation and disease later in the life course. This approach can also reveal how resilience resources counteract these adverse processes and allow others to thrive and be well. Researchers must not only explore short-term variation in constructs of interest, but also explore how these shorter-term fluctuations contribute to longer-term changes. The confluence of DS, contextual influences, and multiple timescales provides an important set of tools to better understand development.

Future Time Perspective in Mid-to-Later Life: The Role of Personality.

OBJECTIVES: Future time perspective (FTP), or the way individuals orient to and consider their futures, is fundamental to motivation and well-being across the life span. There is a relative paucity of studies, however, that explore its contributing factors in mid-to-later life, specifically. Therefore, uncovering which variables contribute to individual differences in FTP, as well as the ways these variables interact, is paramount to developing a strong understanding of this construct during this life-span stage. METHOD: This study used three data mining techniques (ie, elastic net, decision tree, and tree ensemble analyses) to simultaneously test several potential contributors identified in the literature, including the five-factor personality domains, several health indices, and age. RESULTS: Personality, especially neuroticism, extraversion, conscientiousness, and agreeableness, had the most influence on FTP. Age and health were not among the most salient FTP contributors in mid-to-later life. Furthermore, decision tree analyses uncovered interactive effects of personality; several profiles of neuroticism, extraversion, and/or conscientiousness were linked with differing FTP levels. DISCUSSION: Although the extant literature has indicated that FTP, age, and health are inextricably tied, these results indicate that there is more variability to be explained in FTP, perhaps especially when looking within specific age groups.

Daily Stress Processes in a Pandemic: The Effects of Worry, Age, and Affect.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: In March 2020, the World Health Organization declared the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) a pandemic. Given that such a global event might affect day-to-day stress processes, the current study examined individuals' daily stress reactivity and its moderators early in the COVID-19 pandemic. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Two-level, multilevel models examined the daily relationship between perceived stress and negative affect, or stress reactivity, as well as the moderating effects of daily pandemic worry, age, and daily positive affect on this process. Participants included 349 individuals (age range = 26-89) from the Notre Dame Study of Health & Well-being who completed a 28-day, daily diary study at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. RESULTS: Older individuals were less stress-reactive than younger individuals. Within individuals, however, stress reactivity was buffered by daily positive affect and exacerbated by daily pandemic worry. Finally, although daily positive affect buffered daily stress reactivity, this effect was weaker on days individuals were more worried about the COVID-19 pandemic. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: The mobilization of positive emotion may be a promising avenue for buffering stress reactivity during the COVID-19 pandemic, although this may be limited on days individuals are particularly concerned about the pandemic.

Development of Generative Concern Across Mid- to Later Life.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: The development of generativity, or investment in the next generation, has been theorized about for decades. Extant empirical findings regarding generativity's trajectory, however, are mixed. Thus, the current study modeled the development of generative concern, or the extent to which individuals care for the next generation, across adulthood. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: The current study followed an accelerated longitudinal design, modeling generative concern's trajectory across the overlapping ages of 861 age-heterogeneous participants from the 10-year Notre Dame Study of Health & Well-being. Three models were fit to examine whether generative concern followed a linear, quadratic, or cubic trajectory across ages 40-84. The Final Model was tested for birth cohort effects to support the interpretation of developmental change. RESULTS: Generative concern followed an age-graded cubic trend across ages 40-84, and no birth cohort effects were apparent in this trajectory. Generative concern was highest at age 40. Although generative concern declined thereafter, it remained relatively stable across ages 50-70. Finally, generative concern declined after age 70. DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Generative concern, indeed, develops over time. The step-like declines across ages 40-84 are informative for both basic and applied researchers in that knowledge of this developmental trend bolsters decade-old theory and informs the optimal timing for intervention work.

A Note on the Usefulness of Constrained Fourth-Order Latent Differential Equation Models in the Case of Small T.

Constrained fourth-order latent differential equation (FOLDE) models have been proposed (e.g., Boker et al. 2020) as alternative to second-order latent differential equation (SOLDE) models to estimate second-order linear differential equation systems such as the damped linear oscillator model. When, however, only a relatively small number of measurement occasions T are available (i.e., [Formula: see text]), the recommendation of which model to use is not clear (Boker et al. 2020). Based on a data set, which consists of [Formula: see text] observations of daily stress for [Formula: see text] individuals, we illustrate that FOLDE can help to choose an embedding dimension, even in the case of a small T. This is of great importance, as parameter estimates depend on the embedding dimension as well as on the latent differential equations model. Consequently, the wavelength as quantity of potential substantive interest may vary considerably. We extend the modeling approaches used in past research by including multiple subjects, by accounting for individual differences in equilibrium, and by including multiple instead of one single observed indicator.

Affective experience across the adult lifespan: An accelerated longitudinal design.

Recent research investigating the course of affective development across the adult life span has incorporated both cross-sectional and longitudinal data in analyses to understand the aging-affect relationship. Most of these studies, however, have not provided an empirical test to determine whether the cross-sectional and longitudinal data can be combined to infer developmental processes. Utilizing an age heterogeneous sample followed over a 10-year span (N = 1,019, Mage = 54.14 ± 13.06), the present study used an accelerated longitudinal design to investigate whether cross-sectional age differences could be found in longitudinal aging trajectories of positive affect (PA), negative affect (NA), and their confluence (i.e., affect optimization, the experience of PA relative to NA). Additionally, age-related differences in poignancy, co-occurrences of PA and NA, were examined. Absence of cross-sectional age-differences in the estimated longitudinal aging trajectories of PA and affect optimization suggested that a developmental process could be inferred; whereas, the longitudinal aging trajectories for NA showed cross-sectional age differences. PA and affect optimization showed a cubic relationship with age; NA showed decreases across adulthood; and poignancy showed age-related increases across adulthood. Self-rated health was investigated as a covariate in all models. Though somewhat more nuanced, the estimated trajectories for PA, NA, affect optimization, and poignancy provided support for theories of affective aging. The implications of these findings, directions for future research, and issues surrounding using cross-sectional data to infer developmental change are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record

The effect of the financial crisis on physical health: Perceived impact matters.

The impact of the financial crisis on health was investigated ( N = 312). Intraindividual intercept, slope, and quadratic parameters capturing trends in income, subjective financial situation, and perceived stress across the period predicted physical health, controlling for baseline health. For those experiencing a decline in financial situation, a decrease in financial situation and an increase in perceived stress predicted poorer health; neither financial situation nor perceived stress predicted health in those not experiencing this decline. Although we cannot intervene in contextual factors like the financial crisis, health outcomes may be improved by targeting perceived impact and stress levels in those who feel affected.

Relationships Among Nightly Sleep Quality, Daily Stress, and Daily Affect.

OBJECTIVES.: We explored the prospective, microlevel relationship between nightly sleep quality (SQ) and the subsequent day's stress on positive (PA) and negative affect (NA) as well as the moderating relationships between nightly SQ, subsequent stress, and subsequent PA on NA. We investigated whether age moderated these relationships. METHOD.: We collected 56 days of sleep, stress, and affect data using daily diary questionnaires (N = 552). We used multilevel modeling to assess relationships at the between- and within-person levels. RESULTS.: Daily increases in SQ and decreases in stress interacted to predict higher daily PA and lower daily NA. Better SQ in older adults enhanced the benefits of PA on the stress-NA relationship more during times of low stress, whereas better sleep in younger adults enhanced the benefits of PA more during times of high stress. Between-person effects were stronger predictors of well-being outcomes than within-person variability. DISCUSSION.: The combination of good SQ and higher PA buffered the impact of stress on NA. The moderating impact of age suggests that sleep and stress play different roles across adulthood. Targeting intervention and prevention strategies to improve SQ and enhance PA could disrupt the detrimental relationship between daily stress and NA.

Social support as a predictor of variability: an examination of the adjustment trajectories of recent widows.

The variability pattern of emotional well-being in recent widows across a 98-day period beginning in the first month post-loss has previously been modeled by dynamical systems and shown to be an oscillating process that damps across time. The goal of the present study was to examine how variables that comprise the social support network predict characteristics of these emotional shifts in 28 recent widows. In the present study, emotional support seeking led to a steeper overall trend, whereas perceived control for social support led to a shallower overall trend. When examining intraindividual variability, instrumental support seeking predicted a slower damping rate. Understanding the individual differences in the variability patterns of recent widows is a necessary step in identifying the etiology of adjustment to widowhood.

Get Over It! A Multilevel Threshold Autoregressive Model for State-Dependent Affect Regulation.

Intensive longitudinal data provide rich information, which is best captured when specialized models are used in the analysis. One of these models is the multilevel autoregressive model, which psychologists have applied successfully to study affect regulation as well as alcohol use. A limitation of this model is that the autoregressive parameter is treated as a fixed, trait-like property of a person. We argue that the autoregressive parameter may be state-dependent, for example, if the strength of affect regulation depends on the intensity of affect experienced. To allow such intra-individual variation, we propose a multilevel threshold autoregressive model. Using simulations, we show that this model can be used to detect state-dependent regulation with adequate power and Type I error. The potential of the new modeling approach is illustrated with two empirical applications that extend the basic model to address additional substantive research questions.

The complexity of emotions in later life.

The complexity of positive and negative emotions was examined in a sample of 40 adults between the ages of 60 and 85 years. Participants' emotional experiences were assessed by use of a 30-day assessment protocol. Results suggest that different vulnerability and resilience factors are implicated in the intraindividual experience of positive and negative emotions. Individual differences in perceived stress and neuroticism were associated with less differentiation and fewer co-occurrences of positive and negative emotional experiences. In contrast, dispositional resilience predicted greater differentiation and more co-occurrences of affective states. Findings are interpreted within the framework of life-span theories of emotions.

Ups and downs of daily life: age effects on the impact of daily appraisal variability on depressive symptoms.

OBJECTIVES: Day-to-day variability in appraisals has emerged as an index of emotion regulation and overall well-being; there is also evidence that such emotion regulation processes change with age. We investigate the impact of day-to-day variability in positive and negative event appraisals on depressive symptoms, focusing on (a) how variability and mean appraisal characteristics interact to impact well-being and (b) whether these effects differ by age. METHODS: Participants from the Notre Dame Study of Health & Well-Being (aged 40-75 years, N = 654) completed daily diaries for up to 56 days, along with a global survey. Measures included daily data on life events and appraisals and global assessments of depressive symptoms (Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression scale) and neuroticism. RESULTS: Both mean and variability components of daily positive and negative event appraisals predict global depressive symptoms; mean and variability interactions were also significant. The negative appraisal effects became less pronounced with age. DISCUSSION: Findings suggest that those in later life are better able to manage the impact that their cognitive and emotional responses to daily stressors have on depressive symptoms. The results also highlight the importance of examining daily variability-in addition to mean levels-in understanding the impact of daily events and appraisals on well-being.

Self-reported health bias: the role of daily affective valence and arousal.

OBJECTIVE: The present study addresses gaps in the literature on affect-biased health perceptions by (a) investigating health bias while considering both valence and arousal components of affect; (b) establishing the presence of, and variability in, affective health bias at the daily level; and (c) exploring daily health bias in a non-clinical, community sample of adults. DESIGN: Participants were 477 adults (aged 33-80 years) who reported daily health events, health satisfaction and affect for up to 56 days. Health bias was present when the effect of a given day's health events on that day's health satisfaction was significantly moderated by that day's affect. Multilevel modelling was used to investigate fixed and random within-day effects. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Daily health satisfaction. RESULTS: Significant interaction effects indicated the presence of health bias on the daily level: positively valenced affect buffered the negative impact of health events on health satisfaction, whereas negatively valenced affect exacerbated this association; additionally, valence emerged as the most salient characteristic of positive affect, whereas arousal was a differentiating factor for negative affect. CONCLUSION: The results provide evidence that both valence and arousal components of affect are important to consider when investigating day-level health bias, and that these effects can be detected using a general population of adults.

Combinations of stressors in midlife: examining role and domain stressors using regression trees and random forests.

OBJECTIVES: Global perceptions of stress (GPS) have major implications for mental and physical health, and stress in midlife may influence adaptation in later life. Thus, it is important to determine the unique and interactive effects of diverse influences of role stress (at work or in personal relationships), loneliness, life events, time pressure, caregiving, finances, discrimination, and neighborhood circumstances on these GPS. METHOD: Exploratory regression trees and random forests were used to examine complex interactions among myriad events and chronic stressors in middle-aged participants' (N = 410; mean age = 52.12) GPS. RESULTS: Different role and domain stressors were influential at high and low levels of loneliness. Varied combinations of these stressors resulting in similar levels of perceived stress are also outlined as examples of equifinality. Loneliness emerged as an important predictor across trees. DISCUSSION: Exploring multiple stressors simultaneously provides insights into the diversity of stressor combinations across individuals--even those with similar levels of global perceived stress--and answers theoretical mandates to better understand the influence of stress by sampling from many domain and role stressors. Further, the unique influences of each predictor relative to the others inform theory and applied work. Finally, examples of equifinality and multifinality call for targeted interventions.

Coping with daily stress: differential role of spiritual experience on daily positive and negative affect.

OBJECTIVES: On the global-level, spiritual experiences have been shown to buffer against the negative effects of stress on well-being for older adults, but this global-level analysis may not reflect the day-to-day processes at work. The present project uses a daily paradigm to examine the potential moderating effect of everyday spiritual experience (ESE) on the deleterious impact of a given day's perceived stress (PS) on that day's positive and negative affect (PA/NA). METHOD: Participants were 244 older adults aged 55-80 years who completed daily assessments for up to 56 days. RESULTS: Results partially support the moderating hypothesis: ESE buffered the negative effect of PS on same-day NA but had a positive direct effect on same-day PA. DISCUSSION: These results point to a differential function of ESE-that it serves a coping function for NA but enhances PA directly-in the day-to-day lives of older adults, shedding light on the nuanced role of religiousness and spirituality when it comes to coping with daily stress.