Ancient role of vasopressin/oxytocin-type neuropeptides as regulators of feeding revealed in an echinoderm.

BACKGROUND: Vasopressin/oxytocin (VP/OT)-type neuropeptides are well known for their roles as regulators of diuresis, reproductive physiology and social behaviour. However, our knowledge of their functions is largely based on findings from studies on vertebrates and selected protostomian invertebrates. Little is known about the roles of VP/OT-type neuropeptides in deuterostomian invertebrates, which are more closely related to vertebrates than protostomes. RESULTS: Here, we have identified and functionally characterised a VP/OT-type signalling system comprising the neuropeptide asterotocin and its cognate G-protein coupled receptor in the starfish (sea star) Asterias rubens, a deuterostomian invertebrate belonging to the phylum Echinodermata. Analysis of the distribution of asterotocin and the asterotocin receptor in A. rubens using mRNA in situ hybridisation and immunohistochemistry revealed expression in the central nervous system (radial nerve cords and circumoral nerve ring), the digestive system (including the cardiac stomach) and the body wall and associated appendages. Informed by the anatomy of asterotocin signalling, in vitro pharmacological experiments revealed that asterotocin acts as a muscle relaxant in starfish, contrasting with the myotropic actions of VP/OT-type neuropeptides in vertebrates. Furthermore, in vivo injection of asterotocin had a striking effect on starfish behaviour-triggering fictive feeding where eversion of the cardiac stomach and changes in body posture resemble the unusual extra-oral feeding behaviour of starfish. CONCLUSIONS: We provide a comprehensive characterisation of VP/OT-type signalling in an echinoderm, including a detailed anatomical analysis of the expression of both the VP/OT-type neuropeptide asterotocin and its cognate receptor. Our discovery that asterotocin triggers fictive feeding in starfish provides important new evidence of an evolutionarily ancient role of VP/OT-type neuropeptides as regulators of feeding in animals.

Interfibrillar stiffening of echinoderm mutable collagenous tissue demonstrated at the nanoscale.

The mutable collagenous tissue (MCT) of echinoderms (e.g., sea cucumbers and starfish) is a remarkable example of a biological material that has the unique attribute, among collagenous tissues, of being able to rapidly change its stiffness and extensibility under neural control. However, the mechanisms of MCT have not been characterized at the nanoscale. Using synchrotron small-angle X-ray diffraction to probe time-dependent changes in fibrillar structure during in situ tensile testing of sea cucumber dermis, we investigate the ultrastructural mechanics of MCT by measuring fibril strain at different chemically induced mechanical states. By measuring a variable interfibrillar stiffness (EIF), the mechanism of mutability at the nanoscale can be demonstrated directly. A model of stiffness modulation via enhanced fibrillar recruitment is developed to explain the biophysical mechanisms of MCT. Understanding the mechanisms of MCT quantitatively may have applications in development of new types of mechanically tunable biomaterials.

Body wall structure in the starfish Asterias rubens.

The body wall of starfish is composed of magnesium calcite ossicles connected by collagenous tissue and muscles and it exhibits remarkable variability in stiffness, which is attributed to the mechanical mutability of the collagenous component. Using the common European starfish Asterias rubens as an experimental animal, here we have employed a variety of techniques to gain new insights into the structure of the starfish body wall. The structure and organisation of muscular and collagenous components of the body wall were analysed using trichrome staining. The muscle system comprises interossicular muscles as well as muscle strands that connect ossicles with the circular muscle layer of the coelomic lining. The collagenous tissue surrounding the ossicle network contains collagen fibres that form loop-shaped straps that wrap around calcite struts near to the surface of ossicles. The 3D architecture of the calcareous endoskeleton was visualised for the first time using X-ray microtomography, revealing the shapes and interactions of different ossicle types. Furthermore, analysis of the anatomical organisation of the ossicles indicates how changes in body shape may be achieved by local contraction/relaxation of interossicular muscles. Scanning synchrotron small-angle X-ray diffraction (SAXD) scans of the starfish aboral body wall and ambulacrum were used to study the collagenous tissue component at the fibrillar level. Collagen fibrils in aboral body wall were found to exhibit variable degrees of alignment, with high levels of alignment probably corresponding to regions where collagenous tissue is under tension. Collagen fibrils in the ambulacrum had a uniformly low degree of orientation, attributed to macrocrimp of the fibrils and the presence of slanted as well as horizontal fibrils connecting antimeric ambulacral ossicles. Body wall collagen fibril D-period lengths were similar to previously reported mammalian D-periods, but were significantly different between the aboral and ambulacral samples. The overlap/D-period length ratio within fibrils was higher than reported for mammalian tissues. Collectively, the data reported here provide new insights into the anatomy of the body wall in A. rubens and a foundation for further studies investigating the structural basis of the mechanical properties of echinoderm body wall tissue composites.

Ferritin Assembly in Enterocytes of Drosophila melanogaster.

Ferritins are protein nanocages that accumulate inside their cavity thousands of oxidized iron atoms bound to oxygen and phosphates. Both characteristic types of eukaryotic ferritin subunits are present in secreted ferritins from insects, but here dimers between Ferritin 1 Heavy Chain Homolog (Fer1HCH) and Ferritin 2 Light Chain Homolog (Fer2LCH) are further stabilized by disulfide-bridge in the 24-subunit complex. We addressed ferritin assembly and iron loading in vivo using novel transgenic strains of Drosophila melanogaster. We concentrated on the intestine, where the ferritin induction process can be controlled experimentally by dietary iron manipulation. We showed that the expression pattern of Fer2LCH-Gal4 lines recapitulated iron-dependent endogenous expression of the ferritin subunits and used these lines to drive expression from UAS-mCherry-Fer2LCH transgenes. We found that the Gal4-mediated induction of mCherry-Fer2LCH subunits was too slow to effectively introduce them into newly formed ferritin complexes. Endogenous Fer2LCH and Fer1HCH assembled and stored excess dietary iron, instead. In contrast, when flies were genetically manipulated to co-express Fer2LCH and mCherry-Fer2LCH simultaneously, both subunits were incorporated with Fer1HCH in iron-loaded ferritin complexes. Our study provides fresh evidence that, in insects, ferritin assembly and iron loading in vivo are tightly regulated.

Extracellular Adhesive Cues Physically Define Nucleolar Structure and Function.

Adhesive cues from the extracellular matrix (ECM) specify the size and shape of the nucleus via mechanical forces transmitted through the cytoskeleton. However, the effects of these biophysical stimuli on internal nuclear architecture and cellular responses remain poorly understood. This study investigates the direct impact of ECM adhesion on nucleolar remodeling in human keratinocytes using micropatterned substrates. Limited adhesion on small micropatterns promotes fusion of nucleoli, alongside a reduction in nuclear volume and condensation of heterochromatin. These changes in nucleolar architecture are mediated by altered chromatin biomechanics and depend on integration of the nucleus with the actin cytoskeleton. Functionally, nucleolar remodeling regulates ribogenesis and protein synthesis in keratinocytes and is associated with specific transcriptional changes in ribogenesis genes. Together, these findings demonstrate that cell shape and nuclear morphology control nucleolar structure and function and implicate the nucleolus as a key mechano-sensing element within the cell.

Regulation of collective cell polarity and migration using dynamically adhesive micropatterned substrates.

Collective cell migration is a fundamental biological process in which groups of cells move together in a coordinated manner, and it is essential for tissue development and wound repair. However, the underlying mechanisms that orchestrate directionality in collectively migrating cells remain poorly understood. In this study, we employed dynamically adhesive micropatterned substrates to investigate the role of adhesive cues in directing epithelial migration. Our findings demonstrate that epithelial cells collectively polarize in response to asymmetric patterns of extracellular matrix (ECM), and the degree of polarization depends on the degree of asymmetry and requires calcium-dependent cell-cell adhesion. When released from the micropatterns, epithelial cells collectively migrate according to the direction of pre-established polarity, and cohesive migration specifically requires E-cadherin-containing adherens junctions. Finally, disruption of the microtubule network blocks collective polarization and functionally inhibits directed migration. Together, these results indicate that adhesive cues from the ECM guide collective epithelial polarity and migration, and this response depends on adherens junctions and microtubules. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This study employs a dynamically adhesive micropatterning platform to investigate the role of adhesive cues in directing the polarity and directional migration of epithelial cells. The findings demonstrate how asymmetric tissue geometry influences the collective directionality in simple epithelia and that this response is mediated by adherens junctions and the microtubule network. This work provides new insight into fundamental cellular processes involved in wound healing and has important implications for biomaterial and scaffold design.

Research Techniques Made Simple: Analysis of Skin Cell and Tissue Mechanics Using Atomic Force Microscopy.

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a powerful technique for nanoscale imaging and mechanical analysis of biological specimens. It is based on the highly sensitive detection of forces and displacement of a sharp-tipped cantilever as it scans the surface of an object. Because it requires minimal sample processing and preparation, AFM is particularly advantageous for the analysis of cells and tissues in their near-native state. Moreover, recent advances in Bio-AFM systems and the combination with light microscopy imaging have greatly enhanced the application of AFM in biological research. In the field of dermatology, the method has led to important insights into our understanding of the biomechanics of normal healthy skin and the pathogenesis of a variety of skin diseases. In this Research Techniques Made Simple article, we review the fundamental principles of AFM, how AFM can be applied to the analysis of cell and tissue mechanics, and recent applications of AFM in skin science and dermatology.

Developmental transcriptomics of the brittle star Amphiura filiformis reveals gene regulatory network rewiring in echinoderm larval skeleton evolution.

BACKGROUND: Amongst the echinoderms the class Ophiuroidea is of particular interest for its phylogenetic position, ecological importance and developmental and regenerative biology. However, compared to other echinoderms, notably echinoids (sea urchins), relatively little is known about developmental changes in gene expression in ophiuroids. To address this issue, we have generated and assembled a large RNAseq data set of four key stages of development in the brittle star Amphiura filiformis and a de novo reference transcriptome of comparable quality to that of a model echinoderm-the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. Furthermore, we provide access to the new data via a web interface: http://www.echinonet.eu/shiny/Amphiura_filiformis/ . RESULTS: We have identified highly conserved genes associated with the development of a biomineralised skeleton. We also identify important class-specific characters, including the independent duplication of the msp130 class of genes in different echinoderm classes and the unique occurrence of spicule matrix (sm) genes in echinoids. Using a new quantification pipeline for our de novo transcriptome, validated with other methodologies, we find major differences between brittle stars and sea urchins in the temporal expression of many transcription factor genes. This divergence in developmental regulatory states is more evident in early stages of development when cell specification begins, rather than when cells initiate differentiation. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that there has been a high degree of gene regulatory network rewiring and clade-specific gene duplication, supporting the hypothesis of a convergent evolution of larval skeleton development in echinoderms.

Ferritin Is Required in Multiple Tissues during Drosophila melanogaster Development.

In Drosophila melanogaster, iron is stored in the cellular endomembrane system inside a protein cage formed by 24 ferritin subunits of two types (Fer1HCH and Fer2LCH) in a 1:1 stoichiometry. In larvae, ferritin accumulates in the midgut, hemolymph, garland, pericardial cells and in the nervous system. Here we present analyses of embryonic phenotypes for mutations in Fer1HCH, Fer2LCH and in both genes simultaneously. Mutations in either gene or deletion of both genes results in a similar set of cuticular embryonic phenotypes, ranging from non-deposition of cuticle to defects associated with germ band retraction, dorsal closure and head involution. A fraction of ferritin mutants have embryonic nervous systems with ventral nerve cord disruptions, misguided axonal projections and brain malformations. Ferritin mutants die with ectopic apoptotic events. Furthermore, we show that ferritin maternal contribution, which varies reflecting the mother's iron stores, is used in early development. We also evaluated phenotypes arising from the blockage of COPII transport from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus, feeding the secretory pathway, plus analysis of ectopically expressed and fluorescently marked Fer1HCH and Fer2LCH. Overall, our results are consistent with insect ferritin combining three functions: iron storage, intercellular iron transport, and protection from iron-induced oxidative stress. These functions are required in multiple tissues during Drosophila embryonic development.

Discovery of sea urchin NGFFFamide receptor unites a bilaterian neuropeptide family.

Neuropeptides are ancient regulators of physiology and behaviour, but reconstruction of neuropeptide evolution is often difficult owing to lack of sequence conservation. Here, we report that the receptor for the neuropeptide NGFFFamide in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (phylum Echinodermata) is an orthologue of vertebrate neuropeptide-S (NPS) receptors and crustacean cardioactive peptide (CCAP) receptors. Importantly, this has facilitated reconstruction of the evolution of two bilaterian neuropeptide signalling systems. Genes encoding the precursor of a vasopressin/oxytocin-type neuropeptide and its receptor duplicated in a common ancestor of the Bilateria. One copy of the precursor retained ancestral features, as seen in highly conserved vasopressin/oxytocin-neurophysin-type precursors. The other copy diverged, but this took different courses in protostomes and deuterostomes. In protostomes, the occurrence of a disulfide bridge in neuropeptide product(s) of the precursor was retained, as in CCAP, but with loss of the neurophysin domain. In deuterostomes, we see the opposite scenario-the neuropeptides lost the disulfide bridge, and neurophysin was retained (as in the NGFFFamide precursor) but was subsequently lost in vertebrate NPS precursors. Thus, the sea urchin NGFFFamide precursor and receptor are 'missing links' in the evolutionary history of neuropeptides that control ecdysis in arthropods (CCAP) and regulate anxiety in humans (NPS).

Reconstructing SALMFamide Neuropeptide Precursor Evolution in the Phylum Echinodermata: Ophiuroid and Crinoid Sequence Data Provide New Insights.

The SALMFamides are a family of neuropeptides that act as muscle relaxants in echinoderms. Analysis of genome/transcriptome sequence data from the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus (Echinoidea), the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus (Holothuroidea), and the starfish Patiria miniata (Asteroidea) reveals that in each species there are two types of SALMFamide precursor: an L-type precursor comprising peptides with a C-terminal LxFamide-type motif and an F-type precursor solely or largely comprising peptides with a C-terminal FxFamide-type motif. Here, we have identified transcripts encoding SALMFamide precursors in the brittle star Ophionotus victoriae (Ophiuroidea) and the feather star Antedon mediterranea (Crinoidea). We have also identified SALMFamide precursors in other species belonging to each of the five echinoderm classes. As in S. purpuratus, A. japonicus, and P. miniata, in O. victoriae there is one L-type precursor and one F-type precursor. However, in A. mediterranea only a single SALMFamide precursor was found, comprising two peptides with a LxFamide-type motif, one with a FxFamide-type motif, five with a FxLamide-type motif, and four with a LxLamide-type motif. As crinoids are basal to the Echinozoa (Holothuroidea + Echinoidea) and Asterozoa (Asteroidea + Ophiuroidea) in echinoderm phylogeny, one model of SALMFamide precursor evolution would be that ancestrally there was a single SALMFamide gene encoding a variety of SALMFamides (as in crinoids), which duplicated in a common ancestor of the Echinozoa and Asterozoa and then specialized to encode L-type SALMFamides or F-type SALMFamides. Alternatively, a second SALMFamide precursor may remain to be discovered or may have been lost in crinoids. Further insights will be obtained if SALMFamide receptors are identified, which would provide a molecular basis for experimental analysis of the functional significance of the "cocktails" of SALMFamides that exist in echinoderms.