Investigating Patient-Level Radiation Exposure in Hand and Wrist Fracture Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Although occupational exposure to radiation has been previously studied in the hand surgery literature, there is a paucity of studies looking at radiation exposure to the patient during fluoroscopy-guided hand surgery. We aimed to describe the level of radiation experienced by patients undergoing common hand and wrist fracture fixation and to identify risk factors for increased radiation exposure. METHODS: We performed a retrospective review of patients at a single institution who underwent fracture fixation of the hand, wrist, or forearm requiring mini c-arm fluoroscopic guidance from 2016 to 2020. Data points collected included patient demographics, procedural details, and indicators of radiation exposure including dose-area product (DAP), total intraoperative images, and total fluoroscopy time. Effective dose (ED) was calculated using DAP, field size, and a previously established conversion factor. RESULTS: The final sample included 361 patients with an average age of 46 years. Procedures included fixation of forearm fractures (3.3%), distal radius fractures (35.7%), metacarpal fractures (30.8%), and phalangeal fractures (30.2%). The median number of intraoperative images acquired was 36, median total fluoroscopy time was 43 seconds, median DAP was 4.8 cGycm2, and median ED was 0.13 µSv. Distal (metacarpal and phalangeal) fractures required more intraoperative images and longer total fluoroscopy time (49 images, 61 seconds) compared with proximal (forearm and distal radius) fractures (39 images, 47 seconds) (images, P = 0.004; exposure time, P = 0.004). However, distal fractures had a lower average ED compared with proximal fractures (0.15 vs 0.19 µSv, P = 0.020). When compared with open procedures, percutaneous procedures had higher DAPs (8.8 vs 4.9 cGycm2, P < 0.001), higher ED (0.22 vs 0.15 µSv, P < 0.001), more intraoperative images (65 vs 36 images, P < 0.001), and longer total fluoroscopy time (81.9 vs 44.4 seconds, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Patient-level radiation exposure during fluoroscopy-guided hand and wrist procedures is low relative to other common imaging modalities, such as dental radiographs, chest x-rays, and computed tomography scans, and is comparable with less than a few hours of natural background radiation exposure, highlighting the overall safety of this important technology. Further study should be performed to establish reference ranges, which could lead to improved patient counseling and evidence-based guidelines on patient shielding.

Comparison of Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Ultrasound Evaluations of Zone II Partial Flexor Tendon Lacerations: A Cadaveric Study.

OBJECTIVES: Surgical intervention for zone II high-grade partial flexor tendon lacerations is often required when more than half of the tendon width is torn. Reliable noninvasive tests are critical for optimizing clinical decision making. Our team previously investigated the use of ultrasound (US) for identification of high-grade zone II flexor digitorum profundus lacerations. In this study, we compared magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to US for the evaluation of high-grade partial flexor tendon lacerations in cadaveric specimens. METHODS: Dissection of 32 digits in 8 fresh-frozen upper extremity cadaveric specimens was performed. The flexor digitorum profundus tendons were randomized into 3 groups: intact, low-grade laceration, and high-grade laceration. A dynamic US examination was performed by a blinded musculoskeletal radiologist. The same specimens underwent hand coil MRI, which was read by the same blinded radiologist. Magnetic resonance imaging test performance metrics were calculated and compared to those computed for the US evaluation. RESULTS: For US evaluation of high-grade lacerations, the sensitivity and specificity were 0.5 and 1.0, with positive likelihood ratio (LR+) and negative likelihood ratio (LR-) values of ∞ and 0.50, respectively. The sensitivity and specificity for MRI evaluation were 0.2 and 1.0, with LR+ and LR- values of ∞ and 0.80. CONCLUSIONS: Both US and MRI are adequate at determining the presence of a high-grade laceration. Magnetic resonance imaging was more specific than US in identification of high-grade partial flexor tendon lacerations. Although less specific, US is a reasonable and less-expensive alternative to MRI when evaluating for clinically significant high-grade partial flexor tendon lacerations.

Bilateral Plexiform Neurofibromas of the Posterior Interosseous Nerve Mimicking Dorsal Wrist Ganglions.

A 33-year-old woman presented with bilateral dorsal wrist masses associated with pain and limited range of motion. On initial presentation, the masses were believed to be ganglion cysts and the patient opted for observation. Three years later, she was found to have a chest wall mass diagnosed by biopsy to be a neurofibroma. When she later returned to seek treatment for her wrist masses, magnetic resonance imaging demonstrated posterior interosseous nerve (PIN) neurofibromas. Dorsal wrist masses situated over the scapholunate interval are commonly attributed to ganglion cysts. Neurofibromas of the PIN, although rare, should be considered in the differential diagnosis when a mass elicits pain with percussion, fails to transilluminate, fails aspiration, or if the patient has a history of neurofibromas elsewhere in the body.

Ultrasonographic Evaluation of Zone II Partial Flexor Tendon Lacerations of the Fingers: A Cadaveric Study.

OBJECTIVES: Accurate assessment of zone II partial flexor tendon lacerations in the finger is clinically important. Surgical repair is recommended for lacerations of greater than 50% to 60%. Our goal was to evaluate ultrasonographic test characteristics and accuracy in identifying partial flexor tendon lacerations in a cadaveric model. METHODS: From fresh-frozen above-elbow human cadaveric specimens, 32 flexor digitorum profundus tendons were randomly selected to remain intact or receive low- or high-grade lacerations involving 10% to 40% and 60% to 90% of the radioulnar width within Verdan Zone II, respectively. Static and dynamic ultrasonography using a linear array 14-MHz transducer was performed by a blinded musculoskeletal radiologist. Sensitivities, specificities, and other standard test performance metrics were calculated. Actual and measured percentages of tendon laceration were compared by the paired t test. RESULTS: After randomization, 24 tendons were lacerated (12 low- and 12 high-grade), whereas 8 remained intact. The sensitivity and specificity in detecting the presence versus absence of a partial laceration were 0.54 and 0.75, respectively, with positive and negative likelihood ratio values of 2.17 and 0.61. For low-grade lacerations, the sensitivity and specificity were 0.25 and 0.85, compared to 0.83 and 0.85 for high-grade lacerations. Ultrasonography underestimated the percentage of tendon involvement by a mean of 18.1% for the study population as a whole (95% confidence interval, 9.0% to 27.2%; P < .001) but accurately determined the extent for correctly diagnosed high-grade lacerations (-6.7%; 95% confidence interval, -18.7% to 5.2%; P = .22). CONCLUSIONS: Ultrasonography was useful in identifying and characterizing clinically relevant high-grade zone II partial flexor digitorum profundus lacerations in a cadaveric model.

Partial Hand Transplant: Lessons Learned From Cadaveric Dissection Studies.

As the field of vascularized composite allotransplantation continues to expand, new upper extremity transplant candidates are being considered. We recently evaluated a bilateral amputee who had a mid-forearm amputation and a contralateral metacarpal hand amputation. In the latter limb, a "partial" hand transplant that preserved the majority of the patient's existing hand, including a partially severed thumb with intact thenar muscle function, was proposed. The feasibility of this partial hand transplant was studied in fresh-frozen cadaver limbs. This report details the proposed approach, the cadaveric dissections, and the lessons learned from these dissections. Issues of osteosynthesis, microvascular planning, and intrinsic muscle recovery are discussed, all of which are critical considerations for partial hand transplant candidates. Ultimately, the partial hand approach was felt to be inferior to a more conventional distal forearm transplant in this particular candidate. Practical, functional, and ethical implications of such decision are presented.

Patient- and Disease-Specific Factors Associated With Operative Management of de Quervain Tendinopathy.

PURPOSE: It remains unclear which factors, patient- or disease-specific, are associated with electing to undergo operative management for de Quervain tendinopathy. Our null hypothesis was that no patient- or disease-specific factors would be associated with the choice of surgical treatment of de Quervain tendinopathy. METHODS: We performed a retrospective review of consecutive patients diagnosed with de Quervain tendinopathy over 3 years by 1 of 3 fellowship-trained hand surgeons at an urban academic institution. Descriptive statistics were calculated for patient baseline and disease-specific characteristics. Cohorts were compared using bivariate analysis for all collected variables. Binary logistic regression with backward stepwise term selection was performed including independent predictors identified by bivariate analysis. RESULTS: A total of 200 patients were identified for inclusion. Bivariate analysis revealed that surgically treated patients were significantly more likely to have Medicaid insurance, psychiatric illness history, and disabled work status. Regression analysis revealed an association between surgical treatment and 2 of the factors evaluated: Medicaid insurance status and psychiatric illness history. CONCLUSIONS: Psychiatric illness and Medicaid insurance status are associated with undergoing surgical release of the first dorsal compartment. These findings support the use of a biopsychosocial framework when treating patients with de Quervain tendinopathy. TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Prognostic IV.

Acute Deep Infections of the Upper Extremity: The Utility of Obtaining Atypical Cultures in the Presence of Purulence.

PURPOSE: In the setting of acute deep upper extremity infections, evidence is lacking to guide the decision whether to send atypical cultures (fungal and acid-fast-bacillus [AFB]) during surgical debridement, especially in the presence of purulent fluid that is commonly observed with typical bacterial infections. Our purpose was to determine the frequency of positive atypical cultures and the frequency with which they alter treatment, and identify factors associated with positive atypical cultures. METHODS: We retrospectively identified 100 adult patients undergoing surgical debridement of acute deep infections of the upper extremity in which fungal and/or AFB cultures were sent. Necrotizing and superficial infections were excluded. Descriptive statistics were used to describe patient characteristics, infection diagnoses, number of cultures sent with corresponding rates of positivity, and treatments. Cohorts with positive and negative atypical cultures were compared with bivariate analysis for all collected variables. RESULTS: One or more immunocompromising comorbidities were present in 46% of patients. Diagnoses included soft tissue abscess (46%), suppurative flexor tenosynovitis (22%), septic arthritis (21%), osteomyelitis (9%), and septic bursitis (2%). Aerobic bacterial, anaerobic bacterial, fungal, and AFB cultures were sent in 100%, 99%, 94%, and 82% of patients, respectively. Corresponding rates of positivity were 74%, 34.3%, 5.3%, and 2.4%, respectively. Atypical cultures were positive for 7% of patients and 2.9% of all atypical tests sent. Antibiotic treatment was influenced by atypical culture data for 4% of patients. For patients with positive atypical cultures, purulence was observed during surgery in 86% of cases. Bivariate analysis demonstrated symptom duration greater than 7 days as potentially associated with atypical culture positivity. CONCLUSIONS: Intraoperative purulence at the time of surgical intervention should not deter the surgeon from obtaining atypical cultures. As expected, atypical cultures are infrequently positive given the rarity of associated diseases. Symptoms greater than 7 days may predict a higher incidence of atypical culture positivity for patients being treated surgically within 30 days of initial symptom onset. TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Diagnostic IV.

Complications and Revision Surgery of Forearm Fractures.

Nonunion or malunion of forearm fractures may result in restricted range of motion or persistent pain, leading to limitations in activities of daily living. Complications may also present in the form of ectopic bone growth or persistent infections. A systematic method to evaluate complications resulting from forearm fractures is helpful to both determine the cause for the failure and plan for adequate reconstruction.

Immobilization in supination versus neutral following surgical treatment of Galeazzi fracture-dislocations in adults: case series.

PURPOSE: The goal of this study was to investigate whether immobilization in supination is necessary to prevent recurrent distal radioulnar joint (DRUJ) instability in patients older than 18 years with a Galeazzi fracture-dislocation and a stable DRUJ following open reduction and internal fixation of the radius. METHODS: We performed a retrospective chart review of 10 consecutive patients who were immobilized in either supination or a neutral position following surgical treatment of a Galeazzi fracture-dislocation in which the DRUJ was noted to be stable immediately after fixation of the radius. Group 1 consisted of 5 patients who were immobilized in supination for a period of 4 weeks, and group 2 consisted of 5 patients who were immobilized in neutral for 2 weeks, followed by functional bracing. RESULTS: Patients were followed up for an average of 68 months (range, 26-124 mo) after surgery. No significant difference was noted between the 2 groups with respect to age, medical comorbidities (no noteworthy medical comorbidities in either group), or hand dominance. None of the patients in either group demonstrated DRUJ instability during the follow-up period or required any additional surgery. At the latest follow-up, patients in the 2 groups had comparable forearm motion. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the current study suggest that following open reduction and internal fixation of the radius in patients with Galeazzi fracture-dislocations and with stable DRUJs, immobilization in supination for 4 weeks does not have an advantage over immobilization in neutral for a shorter period.

Distal Radius Fracture and the Distal Radioulnar Joint.

In this article, we discuss the incidence and types of injuries to the distal radioulnar joint (DRUJ) that occur in the setting of a distal radius fracture. We review the anatomy of the distal radioulnar joint, which is critical to understanding its biomechanics, and how injury could cause symptomatic incongruency and instability. We highlight how patients with an injury to the distal radioulnar joint might present both at the time of injury and after treatment of a distal radius fracture, the appropriate workup, the available treatment options, and the evidence-based literature.

Extensor tendon injuries.

The extensor mechanism of the fingers, hand, wrist, and forearm is extremely intricate. Disruptions to the extensor system are common and can be associated with poor patient outcomes when not treated appropriately. Although extensor tendon injuries receive much less attention in the literature than flexor tendon injuries do, several recent studies have examined this topic. This article presents an overview of the treatment of extensor tendon injuries, with a focus on recent developments.

Four-Year Follow-Up of the World's First Pediatric Bilateral Hand-Forearm Transplants: Do They Grow as Expected?

BACKGROUND: In 2015, the first bilateral pediatric hand-forearm transplant was performed in an 8-year-old boy. The growth rate of the transplanted upper extremities was unknown at the time. METHODS: Forearm and hand radiographs were obtained annually. Radius and ulna measurements were performed by multiple coauthors and mathematically normalized using a standardized methodology. The Greulich and Pyle atlas was used to estimate hand bone age. RESULTS: From July of 2015 to July of 2019, unadjusted bone length (metaphysis to metaphysis) increased 38.8 and 39.6 mm for the left radius and ulna, and 39.5 and 35.8 mm for the right radius and ulna, respectively. Distal physes of the donor limbs increasingly contributed to overall bone length relative to proximal physes. Normalized growth between the two limbs was statistically similar. At each annual follow-up, the bone age increased by 1 year. CONCLUSIONS: Successful pediatric hand-forearm transplantation offers the advantage of growth similar to that of nontransplanted pediatric patients. The transplanted distal physes contributes more to the overall growth, paralleling normal pediatric growth patterns. Chronologic age parallels the increase in bone age. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, V.

Osteochondritis dissecans of the capitellum in fraternal twins: case report.

The etiology of osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) of the capitellum is unknown but has generally been attributed to repetitive microtrauma or ischemia. We present a case report of fraternal twins with OCD lesions in their nondominant arms without a known history of repetitive injury to the elbow. This report provides evidence to support the idea of genetic predisposition for OCD lesions.

Treatment of advanced carpometacarpal joint disease: arthrodesis.

Thumb carpometacarpal arthritis is a common condition that may result in debilitating pain and loss of acceptable hand function. If patients continue to be symptomatic after a trial of nonoperative management, many surgical options exist in the treatment of carpometacarpal arthritis. For isolated trapeziometacarpal arthritis, arthrodesis is a viable option to create a pain free, strong, and stable thumb.

Deferring Routine Wrist Radiography Does Not Affect Management of de Quervain Tendinopathy Patients.

Background Obtaining wrist radiographs prior to surgeon evaluation may be wasteful for patients ultimately diagnosed with de Quervain tendinopathy (DQT). Questions/Purpose Our primary question was whether radiographs directly influence treatment of patients presenting with DQT. A secondary question was whether radiographs influence the frequency of injection and surgical release between cohorts with and without radiographs evaluated within the same practice. Patients and Methods Patients diagnosed with DQT by fellowship-trained hand surgeons at an urban academic medical center were identified retrospectively. Basic demographics and radiographic findings were tabulated. Clinical records were studied to determine whether radiographic findings corroborated history or physical examination findings, and whether management was directly influenced by radiographic findings. Frequencies of treatment with injection and surgery were separately tabulated and compared between cohorts with and without radiographs. Results We included 181 patients (189 wrists), with no differences in demographics between the 58% (110 wrists) with and 42% (79 wrists) without radiographs. Fifty (45%) of imaged wrists demonstrated one or more abnormalities; however, even for the 13 (12%) with corroborating history and physical examination findings, wrist radiography did not directly influence a change in management for any patient in this series. No difference was observed in rates of injection or surgical release either upon initial presentation, or at most recent documented follow-up, between those with and without radiographs. No differences in frequency, types, or total number of additional simultaneous surgical procedures were observed for those treated surgically. Conclusion Wrist radiography does not influence management of patients presenting DQT. Level of Evidence This is a level III, diagnostic study.

Hematoma of the Flexor Tendon Sheath Mimicking Acute Septic Tenosynovitis: A Case Report.

CASE: We report a case of a 65-year-old woman receiving chronic anticoagulation who presented with acute onset of severe long finger pain and was supratherapeutic on Coumadin. Her examination was consistent with early septic flexor tenosynovitis. She was treated with antibiotics and tendon sheath incision and drainage. Intraoperatively, she was found to have a hematoma in the flexor tendon sheath with no purulence. Her symptoms resolved with decompression. After 2 months, she had regained full range of motion with no deficits. CONCLUSION: Flexor tendon sheath hematoma warrants consideration in the differential diagnosis of patients presenting with the signs and symptoms of acute septic flexor tenosynovitis.

Carpal Ligament Anatomy and Biomechanics.

A fundamental understanding of the ligamentous anatomy of the wrist is critical for any physician attempting to treat carpal instability. The anatomy of the wrist is complex, not only because of the number of named structures and their geometry but also because of the inconsistencies in describing these ligaments. The complex anatomy of the wrist is described through a review of the carpal ligaments and their effect on normal carpal motion. Mastery of this topic facilitates the physician's understanding of the patterns of instability that are seen clinically.

Management of complications of flexor tendon injuries.

Innovations in operative techniques, biomaterials, and rehabilitation protocols have improved outcomes after treatment of flexor tendon injuries. However, despite these advances, treatment of flexor tendon injuries remains challenging. The purpose of this review is to highlight the complications of flexor tendon injuries and review the management of these complications.

Functional outcome and complications following two types of dorsal plating for unstable fractures of the distal part of the radius.

BACKGROUND: There is a paucity of data in the literature documenting the functional outcomes for patients who have been managed with a dorsal plate because of a distal radial fracture. The purpose of the present study was to determine the functional outcome and complications following dorsal plating for dorsally displaced, unstable fractures of the distal part of the radius. METHODS: The records of all patients who had been managed at our institution with dorsal plating because of a comminuted, dorsally displaced fracture of the distal part of the radius were reviewed. Patients with less than twelve months of follow-up were excluded from the study. Outcomes were evaluated at the time of the latest follow-up with use of the Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) questionnaire and the Gartland and Werley scoring system. RESULTS: Twenty-eight patients (nineteen women and nine men) with a mean age of forty-two years formed the basis of the study. The mean duration of follow-up was twenty-one months. Nineteen patients had been treated with a Synthes pi plate, and nine had been treated with a low-profile plate. There were no instances of loss of reduction, malunion, or nonunion. The mean score on the DASH questionnaire was 14.5 points. All patients had an excellent (nineteen patients) or good (nine patients) result according to the scoring system of Gartland and Werley. Nine patients had postoperative complications requiring repeat surgical treatment for hardware removal or extensor tendon reconstruction. All nine reoperations were performed in patients who had been treated with a Synthes pi plate, while none were performed in patients who had been treated with a low-profile plate (p < 0.025). Four complications occurred in patients who had been treated with a titanium plate, and five complications occurred in patients who had been treated with a stainless-steel plate (p = 0.71). CONCLUSIONS: Patients in whom a dorsally displaced distal radial fracture is treated with a titanium or stainless-steel Synthes pi plate have a significantly increased risk of complications compared with those in whom such a fracture is treated with a low-profile plate. Regardless of the type of plate used, all of the patients in the present study had a good or excellent long-term functional outcome.

Longitudinal radioulnar dissociation.

Proximal translation of the radius is a complication of radial head fractures that occurs in association with disruption of the longitudinal soft-tissue stabilizers of the forearm. The sequelae of this process include debilitating wrist and elbow pain secondary to ulnocarpal and radiocapitellar abutment as well as loss of grip strength. When radioulnar dissociation is recognized early, treatment involves prevention of proximal radial migration by preservation of the radial head and stabilization of the distal radioulnar joint. When primary bony repair of the radial head is not feasible, prosthetic replacement of the radial head is necessary to prevent proximal radial migration. Management is complex in chronic cases in which longitudinal radioulnar dissociation is diagnosed after radial migration has occurred. Treatment goals include normalization of the radioulnar relationship and prevention of further migration. Although several reconstructive treatment options are available, no clear solutions exist, and long-term prognosis is guarded. Therefore, early recognition of longitudinal forearm instability is critically important.