Polystyrene nano-plastics impede skeletal muscle development and induce lipid accumulation via the PPARγ/LXRß pathway in vivo and in vitro in mice.

Nano-plastics (NPs) have emerged as a significant environmental pollutant, widely existing in water environment, and pose a serious threat to health and safety with the intake of animals. Skeletal muscle, a vital organ for complex life activities and functional demands, has received limited attention regarding the effects of NPs. In this study, the effects of polystyrene NPs (PS-NPs) on skeletal muscle development were studied by oral administration of different sizes (1 mg/kg) of PS-NPs in mice. The findings revealed that PS-NPs resulted in skeletal muscle damage and significantly hindered muscle differentiation, exhibiting an inverse correlation with PS-NPs particle size. Morphological analysis demonstrated PS-NPs caused partial disruption of muscle fibers, increased spacing between fibers, and lipid accumulation. RT-qPCR and western blots analyses indicated that PS-NPs exposure downregulated the expression of myogenic differentiation-related factors (Myod, Myog and Myh2), activated PPARγ/LXRß pathway, and upregulated the expressions of lipid differentiation-related factors (SREBP1C, SCD-1, FAS, ACC1, CD36/FAT, ADIPOQ, C/EBPα and UCP-1). In vitro experiments, C2C12 cells were used to confirm cellular penetration of PS-NPs (0, 100, 200, 400 µg/mL) through cell membranes along with activation of PPARγ expression. Furthermore, to verify LXRß as a key signaling molecule, silencing RNA transfection experiments were conducted, resulting in no increase in the expressions of PPARγ, LXRß, SREBP1C, FAS, CD36/FAT, ADIPOQ, C/EBPα and UCP-1 even after exposure to PS-NPs. However, the expressions of SCD-1and ACC1 remained unaffected. The present study evidenced that exposure to PS-NPs induced lipid accumulation via the PPARγ/LXRß pathway thereby influencing skeletal muscle development.

Deep Learning Based Prediction of Myopia Control Effect in Children Treated With Overnight Orthokeratology.

OBJECTIVES: To develop and validate a deep learning-based model for predicting 12-month axial length (AL) elongation using baseline factors and early corneal topographic changes in children treated with orthokeratology (Ortho-K) and to investigate the association between these factors and myopia control impact. METHODS: A total of 115 patients with Ortho-K were enrolled. Influential baseline factors that have a statistically significant correlation with 12-month AL from medical records were selected using Pearson correlation coefficients. Simultaneously, the height, area, and volume of the defocus region were directly calculated from the corneal topography. Then, the prediction model was developed by combining multiple linear regression and deep neural network and evaluated in an independent group (83 patients for developing the algorithm and 32 patients for evaluation). RESULTS: Age ( r= -0.30, P <0.001), spherical equivalent refractive (SE; r =0.20, P =0.032), and sex ( r =0.19, P =0.032) were significantly correlated with the AL elongation while pupil diameter, flat k, steep k, horizontal corneal diameter (white to white), anterior chamber depth, and cell density were not ( P >0.1). The prediction model was developed using age, SE, and corneal topographic variation, and the validation of the model demonstrated its effectiveness in predicting AL elongation. CONCLUSIONS: The AL elongation was accurately predicted by the deep learning model, which effectively incorporated both baseline factors and corneal topographic variation.

Surface Properties of Fluorine-Functionalized Metal-Organic Frameworks Based on Inverse Gas Chromatography.

The introduction of the concept of surface properties can help us to better analyze the basic physicochemical property changes of metal-organic framework (MOF) materials before and after fluorine functional group treatment. In this study, several polar and nonpolar probes were selected to determine the surface properties, including surface-dispersive free energy, Lewis acid-base constants of Ni-MOF-74, and perfluoro carboxylic acid-modified Ni-MOF-74-Fn (n = 3, 5, and 7) in the range of 343.15-383.15 K by inverse gas chromatography (IGC). It was observed that the surface energy of the treated Ni-MOF-74-Fn showed a substantial decrease with the growth of the perfluorocarbon alkyl chains and the increase in surface roughness. In addition, Lewis acidic sites exposed by the Ni-MOF-74 material after adopting modification with fluorine functional groups increased with the increase of perfluorinated carboxylic acid chains, and their surface properties changed from amphiphilic acidic to strongly acidic. These results not only enrich the basic physical property data of Ni-MOF-74 but also provide more theoretical basis for the fluorinated functionalized custom-designed MOFs and enrich their applications in the fields of multiphase catalysis, gas adsorption, and chromatographic separation.

Selenium deficiency induced inflammation and apoptosis via NF-κB and MAPKs pathways in muscle of common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.).

Selenium (Se), one of the essential trace elements of fish, regulates immune system function and maintains immune homeostasis. Muscle is the important tissue that generate movement and maintain posture. At present, there are few studies on the effects of Se deficiency on carp muscle. In this experiment, carps were fed with dietary with different Se content to successfully establish a Se deficiency model. Low-Se dietary led to the decrease of Se content in muscle. Histological analysis showed that Se deficiency resulted in muscle fiber fragmentation, dissolution, disarrangement and increased myocyte apoptosis. Transcriptome revealed a total of 367 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were screened, including 213 up-regulated DEGs and 154 down-regulated DEGs. Bioinformatics analysis showed that DEGs were concentrated in oxidation-reduction process, inflammation and apoptosis, and were related to NF-κB and MAPKs pathways. Further exploration of the mechanism showed that Se deficiency led to excessive accumulation of ROS, decreased the activity of antioxidant enzymes, and also resulted in increased expression of the NF-κB and MAPKs pathways. In addition, Se deficiency significantly increased the expressions of TNF-α, IL-1ß and IL-6, and the pro-apoptotic factors BAX, p53, caspase-7 and caspase-3, while decreased the expressions of anti-apoptotic factors Bcl-2 and Bcl-xl. In conclusion, Se deficiency reduced the activities of antioxidant enzymes and led to excessive accumulation of ROS, which caused oxidative stress and affected the immune function of carp, leading to muscle inflammation and apoptosis.

Polyethylene microplastics trigger cell apoptosis and inflammation via inducing oxidative stress and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in carp gills.

Microplastics cause varying degrees of damage to aquatic organisms. Exposure to microplastics contaminated water, the gills are among the first tissues, after the skin, to be affected by microplastics. As an essential immune organ, prolonged stimulation by microplastics disrupts immune function not only in the gills but throughout the body, yet the underlying mechanisms remain elusive. A model of gill injury from exposure to polyethylene (PE) microplastics was developed in this study. H&E staining revealed that polyethylene microplastics caused gill inflammation, vascular remodeling, and mucous cell proliferation. An increase in collagen indicates severe tissue damage. Additional analysis showed that polyethylene microplastics profoundly exacerbated oxidative stress in the gills. TUNEL assay demonstrated cell apoptosis induced by polyethylene microplastic. The mRNA levels were subsequently quantified using RT-PCR. The results showed that polyethylene microplastics increased the expression of the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway (NF-κB p65, IKKα, IKKß) and apoptosis biomarkers (p53, caspase-3, caspase-9, and Bax). Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasomes, which is an influential component of innate immunity, were overactive. What's more, the pro-inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-6, IL-8, IL-1ß) that induce immune disorder also increased significantly, while the anti-inflammatory factors (IL-4, IL-10) decreased significantly. These results suggested that oxidative stress acted as an activation signal of apoptosis triggered by the NF-κB pathway and activating the NLRP3 inflammasome to promote inflammatory immune responses. The present study provided a different target for the prevention of toxin-induced gill injury under polyethylene microplastics.

Computer simulation of hypothetical hydrogen ordered structure of ice XIX.

A new ice phase, ice XIX, was discovered in 2018, and is the second hydrogen-ordered polymorph of hydrogen-disordered ice VI. The first hydrogen-ordered polymorph of ice VI is ice XV, and ices XIX, VI, and XV comprise a unique triplet group in the ice family. However, the exact crystal structure of ice XIX has not been confirmed. We constructed four possible conformations of ice XIX using neutron diffraction data obtained by Gasser et al. We then optimized these structures and simulated their Raman scattering spectra using first-principles density functional theory. By comparing these simulated spectra with the experimental Raman scattering spectra, we were able to exclude the existence of a ferroelectric structure with the space group Cc. The other three candidate structures are in good agreement with the experimental Raman scattering data; two of them are ferroelectric structures with the space group P21; and the last one is a weak ferroelectric structure with the space group Cc. We proposed that the partially hydrogen-ordered structure of ice XIX maybe a mixing of several hydrogen-ordered structures.

DFT Investigations of the Vibrational Spectra and Translational Modes of Ice II.

The vibrational spectrum of ice II was investigated using the CASTEP code based on first-principles density functional theory (DFT). Based on good agreement with inelastic neutron scattering (INS), infrared (IR), and Raman experimental data, we discuss the translation, libration, bending, and stretching band using normal modes analysis method. In the translation band, we found that the four-bond and two-bond molecular vibration modes constitute three main peaks in accordance with INS ranging from 117 to 318 cm-1. We also discovered that the lower frequencies are cluster vibrations that may overlap with acoustic phonons. Whale et al. found in ice XV that some intramolecular vibrational modes include many isolated-molecule stretches of only one O-H bond, whereas the other O-H bond does not vibrate. This phenomenon is very common in ice II, and we attribute it to local tetrahedral deformation. The pathway of combining normal mode analysis with experimental spectra leads to scientific assignments.

Computational Analysis of Exotic Molecular and Atomic Vibrations in Ice XV.

It is always difficult to assign the peaks of a vibrational spectrum in the far-infrared region. The two distinct peaks seen in many ice phases are still a mystery to date. The normal modes of ice XV were calculated using the CASTEP code based on first-principles density functional theory. On the basis of vibrational modes analysis, we divided the translational modes into three categories: four-bond vibrations, which have the highest energy levels; two-bond vibrations, which have medium levels of energy; and relative vibrations between two sublattices, which have the lowest energy. Whale et al. found that some intramolecular stretching modes include the isolated vibration of only one O-H bond, whereas the others do not vibrate in ice XV. We verified this phenomenon in this study and attributed it to local tetrahedral deformation. Analysis of normal modes, especially in the translation and stretching band of ice XV, clarified the physical insights of the vibrational spectrum and can be used with other ice phases.

Two faces of Hippo: activate or suppress the Hippo pathway in cancer.

The Hippo pathway has generated considerable interest in recent years because of its involvement in several key hallmarks of cancer progression and metastasis. Research on the Hippo signaling pathway in cancer has been used to determine the activity of yes-associated protein (YAP) in tumorigenesis and disease progression. Previous studies have shown that the Hippo pathway can be used as a target to inhibit YAP activity and is a viable treatment for cancer. However, more studies are required to further advance our understanding of the Hippo signaling pathway in cancer. It has been shown that knockout of serine/threonine-kinases LATS1/2 in the Hippo pathway suppresses cancer immunity in mice. In addition, suppression of the oncogene YAP could contribute toward cancer immune therapy. Therefore, regulation of Hippo signaling can be an attractive alternative strategy for cancer treatment. This review will provide a summary of currently known compounds that activate or suppress the Hippo pathway.

Trends and Prospects of Stem Cell Research in China.

Great progresses have been made in fundamental and clinical stem cell research in China in recent years. The official policy on stem cells, which was announced in 2015, seems as the spring of stem cell therapy in China. However, the regulation, governance, and management of clinical expectations are still challenging. This review summarized the current stem cell research and development in the field, as well as its rapidly evolving commercial, regulatory and ethical environment in China. As expected, the prospects of stem cells in China look prospective.

Meningocele in the Parapharyngeal Space: A Case Report and Review of the Literature.

The parapharyngeal space has been described as an inverted pyramid shape with the base of the skull and the great cornu of the hyoid bone at the top. Tumors of the parapharyngeal space account for 0.5% of head and neck tumors and a wide range of tumor types can occur in this area, 80% of which are benign, the most common being pleomorphic adenomas of the salivary glands and neurogenic tumors. We present a 39-year-old woman who was hospitalized due to left-sided neck pain with a feeling of blockage in the left ear and hearing loss for 10 months. Imaging showed that the mass was not connected to the cranium and the patient underwent surgical resection via a transoral approach, where the contents of the mass were found to be cerebrospinal fluid, and meningocele in the parapharyngeal space is a rare occurrence. The patient presented mainly with painful symptoms, which were eventually relieved by nerve block therapy.

Causal Relationship Between Body Mass Index and Risk of Otitis Media with Effusion in Children: A Mendelian Randomization Study.

Background: Body mass index(BMI) in children appears to be associated with Otitis media with effusion(OME) in observational studies, but the causal relationship is not clear. Methods: A two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) study was used to explore the causal relationship between childhood BMI and OME in people of European ancestry. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) of childhood BMI were used as exposures (n = 61,111), while GWAS of OME were used as outcomes (n = 429,290). The weighted inverse variance method (IVW) was used as a baseline method to test for causality. In addition, MR-Egger, simple mode analysis, weighted median, and weighted mode were used as complementary methods.MR-PRESSO analysis, MR-Egger intercept analysis, and Cochran's Q statistical analysis were also used to detect possible directional heterogeneity and polymorphism. To assess this association, we used ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (ci). All statistical analyses were performed in R. Results: We selected 22 genome-wide significant single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from GWAS as instrumental variables (IVW). the IVW approach showed evidence supporting a causal relationship between BMI and OME in children (ß = 0.265, SE = 0.113, P = 0.018). MR-Egger regression showed that targeted polymorphisms were unlikely to bias the results bias (intercept=-0.022; P = 0.488), but there was no causal relationship between BMI and OME (ß = 0.584, SE = 0.465, P = 0.224). Although the results of the IVW and MR Egger analyses were not consistent, the IVW analysis maintained higher precision, and the Cochran Q test, heterogeneity and polymorphism tests showed no heterogeneity, no directionality and no polymorphism. Conclusions: MR studies suggest that genetically predicted body mass index in childhood is associated with an increased risk of OME. Notably, given the limitations of this study, the mechanism of association between body mass index and OME in childhood needs further investigation. These results support the importance of effective management of obesity, which may reduce OME occurrence and decrease OME recurrence.

Association of iron deficiency with chronic suppurative otitis media in adults.

BACKGROUND: Chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM) is a prevalent chronic inflammatory disease globally. Current research suggests a possible association between anaemia and the development of CSOM. OBJECTIVES: The objective of this trial was to investigate the relationship between iron metabolism and chronic suppurative otitis media (CSOM) in adults aged 20-60 years. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A consecutive sampling case-control study was used. The study participants were divided into a case group (42 children diagnosed with CSOM) and a control group (42 children with normal ears). Haemoglobin (Hb), Hematocrit (Hct), mean corpuscular volume of erythrocytes (MCV), serum iron level (SI), unsaturated iron-binding capacity (UIBC), total iron-binding capacity (TIBC), transferrin (TF), ferritin (Fer) were tested in all the participants, and the results were compared with the normal ranges of the World Health Organization (WHO). The comparative analysis of cases and controls was performed using the Fisher extract test, independence t-test, or Mann-Whitney U test. p-value <.05 was considered statistically significant for correlation. RESULTS: There were 61 patients with CSOM and 61 controls included in the study. In the case group, 16 out of 61 patients (26.2%) had low ferritin levels and in the control group, 1 out of 61 patients (1.6%) had low ferritin levels (p < .001). In the case group, 6 (9.8%) of 61 patients had IDA, and in the control group, there were no patients with IDA among 61 patients (p = .027). There were significant differences in SI, UIBC, and Fer parameters between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: In adult patients, the incidence of iron deficiency was higher in CSOM patients than in controls. Iron deficiency may be considered a potential risk factor for chronic suppurative otitis media, and serum iron parameters should be evaluated in these CSOM patients and further studies should be conducted to better understand the potential link between iron deficiency and CSOM.

Polyethylene microplastics induced gut microbiota dysbiosis leading to liver injury via the TLR2/NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway in mice.

Microplastics (MPs) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants that have negative impacts on health and safety. The gut microbiota plays multiple roles as a newly discovered virtual metabolic organ. The objective of this study was to investigate the potential of MPs to cause liver injury by disrupting the balance of gut microbiota. The results indicated that exposure to MPs resulted in liver damage and disrupted the homeostasis of gut microbiota. MPs significantly reduced the liver organ coefficient, leading to liver cell injury and impaired function. Additionally, there was an increase in the expression of fibril-related proteins, which positively correlated with MPs concentration. Furthermore, MPs increased the relative abundances of Desulfovibrio, Clostridia, Enterorhabdus, Bacteroides, and Gemella while decreasing the abundance of Dubosoella. Different concentrations of MPs exhibited varying effects on specific bacterial groups, however, both concentrations resulted in an increase in pathogenic bacteria and a decrease in beneficial bacteria, as well as alterations in microbial structure. Moreover, MPs induced oxidative stress, inflammation, apoptosis and necrosis in liver cells. The study found that MPs disrupted gut microbiota homeostasis and activated TLR2/NF-κB/NLRP3 pathway in the liver, providing a new insight into the mechanism underlying MPs-induced liver injury. These findings serve as a warning regarding environmental pollution caused by MPs.

Dietary Paper Mulberry Silage Supplementation Improves the Growth Performance, Carcass Characteristics, and Meat Quality of Yangzhou Goose.

There have been few investigations into the health benefits and meat quality of supplementing Yangzhou geese with paper mulberry silage. One hundred and twenty 28-day-old Yangzhou geese were selected for the experiment and randomly divided into two groups: a control group (CON) and a paper mulberry silage group (PM), with six replicates in each group. The experiment lasted for a total of 6 weeks. The experiment found that compared with CON, PM had a promoting effect on the average daily weight gain of Yangzhou geese (p = 0.056). Sensory and nutritional analysis of breast muscles revealed a decrease in a* value (p < 0.05) and an increase in protein content (p < 0.05) following PM treatment. Through untargeted metabolomics analysis of breast muscle samples, it was found that 11 different metabolites, including guanidinoacetic acid and other substances, had a positive effect on amino acid metabolism and lipid antioxidant pathways of PM treatment. Overall, the strategy of feeding Yangzhou geese with paper mulberry silage is feasible, which can improve the sensory quality and nutritional value of goose meat. The experiment provides basic data for the application form of goose breeding, so exploring the impact of substances within paper mulberry on goose meat should be focused on in the future.

Methylammonium-Free Ink for Blade-Coating of Pure-Phase α-FAPbI3 Perovskite Films in Air.

The α-c (α-FAPbI3) has been extensively employed in the fabrication of high-efficiency perovskite solar cells, yet heavily relied on multiple additives in upscalable fabrication in air. In this work, a simple α-FAPbI3 ink is developed for the blade-coating fabrication of phase-pure α-FAPbI3 in ambient air free from any additives containing extrinsic ions. The introduction of 2-imidazolidinone (IMD) to the FAPbI3 precursor inks leads to the formation of intermediate phases that change the phase transition pathway from δ-FAPbI3 to α-FAPbI3 by tilting the PbI6 octahedrons with strong coordination to Pb2+. Furthermore, the IMD ligands in the intermediate phase gradually escape from the perovskite film during the annealing, leaving a phase-pure α-FAPbI3 film vertically grown with large grains. Consequently, the small-sized PSCs fabricated with blade-coated α-FAPbI3 film achieve an efficiency of up to 23.14%, and the corresponding mini-module yields an efficiency of 19.66%. The device performance is among the highest reported for phase-pure α-FAPbI3 PSCs fabricated in the air without non-native cations or chloride additives, offering a simple and robust fabrication approach of phase-pure α-FAPbI3 films for PV application.

Game changer for anaerobic fermentation of paper mulberry: Sucrose-loaded biochar enhancing microbial communities and lactic acid fermentation.

This study investigated biochar effects, either alone or combined with sucrose, on fermentation quality, microbial communities, and in vitro rumen digestion of anaerobic fermented paper mulberry. The biochar alkaline functional groups bind to lactic acid, reducing acid inhibition and promoting Lactiplantibacillus proliferation. Owing to the low sugar content of paper mulberry, lactic acid bacteria in the biochar group primarily underwent heterofermentation, resulting in the lowest lactic and highest acetic acid contents. Treated with sucrose-loaded biochar, the increased substrate supported homofermentation, leading to the highest lactic and lowest acetic acid contents, with a 15.0 % increase in lactic acid and a 22.2 % decrease in ammoniacal nitrogen compared with the control after 75 days. In vitro rumen tests showed that the biochar-sucrose group had the highest dry matter degradation rate (45.9 %) and a 24.2 % reduction in methane emissions. Concludingly, sucrose-loaded biochar is recommended as effective for lactic acid production under anaerobic conditions.

A Perceptual Structure of Soundscapes in Urban Public Spaces Using Semantic Coding Based on the Grounded Theory.

The definition of 'soundscape' emphasises the perceptual construct of sounds; thus, the mechanism of sound perceptions becomes vital for soundscape evaluations. Using a qualitative approach, this study explored the aspects and processes of sound perceptions and built a perceptual soundscape structure from the insight of sociology. The interview was conducted between January and March 2018, in four urban public spaces. Data reached saturation after 23 participants were interviewed based on the grounded theory approach. Four perceptual aspects of sounds were identified from the semantic coding analysis: sound classification, sound features, psychological reactions, and soundscape preferences. These aspects form a three-level process of perceiving soundscapes: sound classifications, sound appraisals (including sound features and psychological reactions), and finally, judgment (soundscape preferences). Overall, four aspects categorised into three levels of perception make up the soundscape structure. Soundscape preferences are at the most profound level of perception and are informed by the previous three aspects. Soundscape preferences are expressed through descriptive words and narrative 'image'. The 'image' reflects people participating in different activities according to their social background. Social relationships influence soundscape preferences through people's sound requirements for various activities. The perceptual structure of soundscapes may provide guidance for future soundscape research and soundscape questionnaire design.

Microplastics induced inflammation and apoptosis via ferroptosis and the NF-κB pathway in carp.

Microplastics (MPs), a new class of pollutant that threatens aquatic biodiversity, are becoming increasingly prevalent around the world. Fish growth may be severely inhibited by microplastics, resulting in severe mortality. Exposure to microplastics increases the likelihood of intestinal injuries, but the underlying mechanisms remain equivocal. The objective of this study was to investigate the potential toxic mechanisms underlying microplastic-induced intestinal injury in fish and to assist researchers in identifying novel therapeutic targets. In this study, a model of carp exposed to microplastics was established successfully. Histological observation showed that exposure to polyethylene microplastics caused damage to the intestinal mucosal surface and a significant increase in goblet cells, which aggregated on the surface of the mucosa. The mucosal layer was observed to fall off. Lymphocytes in the intestinal wall proliferated and aggregated. TUNEL staining showed that apoptosis occurred in the group exposed to microplastics. The qPCR results showed that the expression of Ferroptosis apoptotic factors COX-2 and ACSL4 was upregulated, while the expression of TFRC, FIH1, SLC7A11, and GPX4 was downregulated. The NF-κB pathway (p-p65, IκBα), inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-8, IL-6) and apoptosis genes (Bax, Caspase3) were upregulated. Semi-quantitative detection of related proteins by Western blotting was consistent with the gene expression results. In addition, the ELISA assay showed that lipid peroxidation and inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-6) were increased in the microplastic exposed group. To conclude, lipid peroxidation induced by microplastics activates the NF-κB pathway and causes ferroptosis, ultimately resulting in intestinal damage and cellular apoptosis.

Exposure to polystyrene microplastics triggers lung injury via targeting toll-like receptor 2 and activation of the NF-κB signal in mice.

Microplastics are ubiquitous pollutants with a wide range of plastic applications. More recently, microplastics are in the air and can be inhaled into the lungs, causing respiratory diseases. Knowledge of the underlying mechanisms by which microplastics may induce respiratory disease is still limited. This study used intranasal instillation to develop a model of lung injury. The histopathology result showed that the mouse lung had severe inflammatory responses, apoptosis and collagen deposition with chronic exposure to different sizes (Small: 1-5 µm and Large: 10-20 µm) of polystyrene microplastics (PS-MPS), and the damage of smaller sizes was obvious. The expression levels of the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) family, evolutionarily conserved pattern recognition receptors, were detected, and the levels of TLR2 mRNA was significantly increased. In transfection experiments, PS-MPS increased the inflammatory response in HEK293 cells with TLR2 expression. Furthermore, exposure to small polystyrene microplastics promoted oxidative stress and apoptosis, and accelerated the process of fibrosis. Interestingly, inhibition of the NF-κB signal relieves inflammation and oxidative stress, reduces apoptosis, and thus controls the fibrosis process. These results suggested that PS-MPS targeted binding to TLR2 and further exacerbated fibrosis by facilitating inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis with the activation of NF-κB signal.