Measurement standards for human metacarpals.

Standards for measuring the metacarpals are absent from commonly used osteometric guides. Perhaps the closest to a set of standard measurements in common use today are those proposed by Scheuer and Elkington (Scheuer and Elkington: J Forensic Sci 38 (1993) 769-788) for forensic sex assessment. They include caliper measurements of interarticular length, base and head width, base and head height, and maximum midshaft diameter. Over the last decade, a new set of measurements that encompass similar dimensions to those used by Scheuer and Elkington, but which are taken with a mini-osteometric board (MOB) have been developed by the lead author. Use of the MOB avoids the need to manipulate both the bone and calipers in three-dimensional space and causes less strain on the hands. However, the question of intra- and interobserver accuracy has not been adequately addressed for either set of measurements. The purpose of this study was to test both the Scheuer/Elkington and MOB measurements on 20 hands from 10 anatomical skeletons for intra- and inter-observer accuracy. The study found that 92% of the MOB measures had a lower intraobserver error, and 88% had a lower interobserver error than did the caliper measurements. It also found that the maximum midshaft diameter measurement used by Scheuer and Elkington is more repeatable than a mediolateral diameter. Overall, 88% of the 25 MOB measurements had median intraobserver error rates of under 1.5%, compared with 60% of the caliper measurements. Furthermore, the MOB measurements as a set were taken 10 to 12% faster than the caliper measurements.

Sex determination from hand and foot bone lengths.

Numerous studies have addressed sex estimation from the hands and feet with varying results. These studies have utilized multiple measurements to determine sex from the hands and feet, including measures of robusticity (e.g., base width and midshaft diameter). However, robusticity measurements are affected by activity, which can disguise underlying patterns of sexual dimorphism. The purpose of this study is to investigate the utility of length measurements of the hands and feet to estimate sex. The sample consists of white females (n=123) and males (n=136) from the Terry Collection. Discriminant function analysis was used to classify individuals by sex. The left hand outperformed both the right hand and foot producing correct classification rates exceeding 80%. Surprisingly, the phalanges were better sex discriminators than either the metacarpals or metatarsals. This study suggests that length measures are more appropriate than robusticity measures for sex estimation.

Osteometric sex estimation from the os coxa in a Thai population.

The coxal bone shows a very high degree of sexual dimorphism both morphologically and metrically. However, despite a number of recent studies on sex estimation from the skeleton in Thailand, no osteometric methods of sexing the Thai os coxa have been proposed. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop a standard sex estimation method for a Thai population by examining the efficacy of six coxal bone measurements and eight indices obtained from 200 Thai skeletons. Independent samples t-tests revealed statistically significant differences between males and females for all but one of the measurements. The equation with the highest correct allocation accuracy was based on four measurements (pubis length, ischium length, total height and acetabulum diameter) and had a predicted and cross-validated accuracy of 96.9% and a tested accuracy of 97.5% on a holdout sample of 40 individuals. The single variable equation with the highest correct allocation accuracy of 94.4% and a tested accuracy of 97.5% was for the ischiopubic index, which is calculated from ischium length and pubis length. Percentage accuracies in predicting sex from these equations were higher than many previous studies, suggesting high levels of sexual dimorphism in the Thai os coxa.

Use of 2D:4D digit ratios to determine sex.

Second to fourth digit ratios (2D:4D) are sexually dimorphic in human hands and established by the 13th gestational week. Application of 2D:4D for determining sex in living individuals by Kanchan et al. (Forensic Sci Int, 181, 2008, 53.e1) produced classification rates of 80% for males and 74-78% for females. Few studies have explored the use of 2D:4D for sexing skeletal remains. We test estimated finger lengths, phalanx lengths, and 2D:4D derived from hand bones for determining sex. Maximum phalanx length was collected using a mini-osteometric board from 451 individuals of known age, sex, and ancestry in four skeletal collections. Logistic regression of 2nd and 4th digit finger and phalanx lengths produced classification rates greater than 80%. Digit ratios, however, failed to reach classification rates greater than 59%. Our results support those of Voracek (Forensic Sci Int, 185, 2009, e29) and suggest that 2D:4D may be population-specific and thus inappropriate for universal application as a means of determining sex.

Sex estimation from the talus in a Thai population.

Previous research on sex estimation from the tarsals has shown that the talus is the most sexually dimorphic tarsal bone in most populations. In order to assess the sexing potential of the talus in a Thai population, 252 skeletons (126 male, 126 female) from the Chiang Mai University Skeletal Collection were measured. The sample represents Thai people who come from the local Chiang Mai area and who died within the past ten years. Ten measurements were taken on the left and right tali from each skeleton. Seven of these measurements are similar, or identical, to measurements used by other researchers. Three experimental measurements were also taken. Logistic regression equations were calculated for each measurement, and for pairs of measurements. The individual measurements were also examined using ROC analysis. Averaging the results from both sides, the individual measurements with the highest correct allocation accuracies based on logistic regression analysis were trochlear length (88.2%), trochlear breadth (87.3%), talar length (85.5%), and inferior articular surface length (84.5%). The ROC results followed a similar pattern, with Area Under the Curve values as follows: trochlear length (0.952), inferior articular surface length (0.937), trochlear breadth (0.935), and talar length (0.914). When pairs of measurements were considered by means of logistic regression, four equations produced predicted allocation accuracies greater than 90% - three from the right talus, and one from the left. The highest accuracy on both sides resulted from a combination of the two most sexually dimorphic individual measurements of trochlear length and trochlear breadth. Together, they produced predicted allocation accuracies of 91.3% on the right side, and 91.4% on the left side. Unlike many past studies that have found talar length to be the most sexually dimorphic measurement of the talus, our study found trochlear length and breadth to be the most accurate measurements for distinguishing the sexes. Researchers developing sexing equations for use with other populations should consider including trochlear length and breadth in their analyses.

Determination of sex from the proximal hand phalanges in a Thai population.

A sample of 249 skeletons (154 males, 95 females) from the Chiang Mai University Skeletal Collection was studied to investigate the potential of proximal hand phalanges as indicators of sex among individuals from the Chiang Mai province of Thailand. The sample ranged in age from 19 to 93 years. Six measurements were taken on each proximal phalanx: maximum length, medio-lateral base width, antero-posterior base height, medio-lateral head width, antero-posterior head height and maximum mid-shaft diameter. The measurements were then subjected to ROC analysis as well as binary logistic regression to assess the relative correct allocation accuracy for each bone, and for different combinations of measurements from each bone. All proximal phalanges from both sides exhibited greater than 87% correct allocation accuracy for at least one logistic regression equation that included only two or three measurements. When the sample was limited to individuals with no missing measurements (n=209) in any of the phalanges, the most accurate equations for each proximal phalanx ranged from 87.6% to 92.3%, with the most accurate equation based on two measurements from the left 1st proximal phalanx, and the next most accurate from three measurements of the left 2nd proximal phalanx. The results suggest that proximal phalanges produce better allocation accuracies than metacarpals among modern individuals from Thailand.

Sexual dimorphism in the tarsal bones: implications for sex determination.

An accurate determination of sex is essential in the identification of human remains in a forensic context. Measurements of some of the tarsals have been shown to be sexually dimorphic by previous researchers. The purpose of the present study is to determine which dimensions of the seven tarsals demonstrate the greatest sexual dimorphism and therefore have the most potential for accurate sex determination. Eighteen measurements of length, width, and height were obtained from the tarsals of 160 European-American males and females from the William M. Bass Donated Skeletal Collection. These measurements were made using a mini-osteometric board. Logistic regression analyses were performed to create equations for sex discrimination. All measurements showed significant sexual dimorphism, with the talus, cuboid, and cuneiform I producing allocation accuracies of between 88 and 92%. Combinations of measurements provided better accuracy (88.1-93.6%) than individual measurements (80.0-88.0%).

Determination of sex from the metacarpals in a Thai population.

Determination of sex using metacarpals was carried out on a sample of 249 skeletons from a Thai population (154 males and 95 females), ranging in age from 19 to 93 years. Six measurements were taken on each metacarpal, namely maximum length, medio-lateral base width, antero-posterior base height, medio-lateral head width, antero-posterior head height and mid-shaft diameter. Binary logistic regression equations were calculated for determining sex from these measurements. All metacarpals from both sides produced at least one equation that correctly allocated the skeletons with 80% or greater accuracy. In a comparative test using only individuals with no missing measurements (n=196), the most accurate equations for each metacarpal on the right side had pooled allocation accuracies ranging from 85.2% to 89.3%, with the best equation based on three measurements from the 5th metacarpal. On the left side, the most accurate equations for each metacarpal ranged from 83.2% to 89.8% correct allocation, with the best equation based on three measurements of the 2nd metacarpal. When the allocation accuracy for each sex is considered in addition to the pooled accuracy, the best equations involve the same three measurements of the 5th metacarpal on the right side, but shift to three measurements of the first metacarpal on the left side, with a pooled accuracy of 88.3%. The results of this study suggest that metacarpals can be used quite reliably for sexing in forensic contexts in Thailand.

Dermatoglyphics from all Chinese ethnic groups reveal geographic patterning.

Completion of a survey of dermatoglyphic variables for all ethnic groups in an ethnically diverse country like China is a huge research project, and an achievement that anthropological and dermatoglyphic scholars in the country could once only dream of. However, through the endeavors of scientists in China over the last 30 years, the dream has become reality. This paper reports the results of a comprehensive analysis of dermatoglyphics from all ethnic groups in China. Using cluster analysis and principal component analysis of dermatoglyphics, it has been found that Chinese populations can be generally divided into a southern group and a northern group. Furthermore, there has been considerable debate about the origins of many Chinese populations and about proper assignment of these peoples to larger ethnic groups. In this paper, we suggest that dermatoglyphic data can inform these debates by helping to classify a Chinese population as a northern or southern group, using selected reference populations and quantitative methods. This study is the first to assemble and investigate dermatoglyphics from all 56 Chinese ethnic groups. It is fortunate that data on population dermatoglyphics, a field of physical anthropology, have now been collected for all 56 Chinese ethnic groups, because intermarriage between individuals from different Chinese ethnic groups occurs more frequently in recent times, making population dermatoglyphic research an ever more challenging field of inquiry.