[The moderating effect of dispositional mindfulness in the relationship between depressive symptoms, borderline personality traits and suicidal ideation among young adults]. / L'effet modérateur de la pleine conscience dispositionnelle dans la relation entre symptomatologie dépressive, troubles de la personnalité limite et idéations suicidaires chez le jeune adulte.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of the study was to evaluate the influence of dispositional mindfulness on suicidal ideation and its moderating effect on the relationships between depressive symptoms and borderline personality traits, and suicidal ideation. METHODS: A sample of 1034 students from France (818 women, mean age=20.1±2; 216 men, mean age=20.6±2.2) completed the Five Facets Mindfulness Questionnaire-Short Form (FFMQ-SF), assessing dispositional mindfulness, the Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) assessing depression symptoms; the borderline personality disorder scale of the Personality Disorder Questionnaire-4th Edition (PDQ-4), and the three-item scale measuring suicidal ideation proposed by Garrison et al. (1991). RESULTS: At least occasional wish to kill oneself was reported by 11% of men and 10% of women. Thirty-eight percent of men and 47% of women had moderate to severe depressive symptoms (P<.001). The mean borderline personality traits score for women was higher than for men (33.44±10.56 versus 31.48±10.35; P=.02), and the mean dispositional mindfulness score for men was higher than for women (77.99±12.3 versus 73.4±12.1; P<.001). In order to explore the role of mindfulness as a moderator between depressive symptoms/borderline traits and the wish to kill oneself, multiple regression analyses were performed separately by gender according to the method of Hayes (2013). To assess whether the presence of dispositional mindfulness decreased the risk for persons with depressive symptoms/borderline personality traits to have suicidal ideation, the effect of the interaction between these disorders and dispositional mindfulness was tested by introducing in a second regression the cross product of these two variables. To assert moderation we had to observe that the interaction explained an additional part of the variance of suicidal ideation. For men, in the first multiple regression analysis, the FFMQ-SF score and PHQ-9 score both explained 32% of the variance of suicidal ideation (R2=.32, s.e.=1.42). In the second analysis, the prediction level of depressive symptoms and dispositional mindfulness scores had decreased. The interaction between dispositional mindfulness and depressive symptoms was a significant predictor in the second stage (ß=-.26; t=-4.48, P<.001), accounting for an additional 6% of the variance of suicidal ideation (R2=.38, s.e.=1.36). For women, in the first multiple regression analysis, the FFMQ-SF score and PHQ-9 score both explained 25% of the variance of suicidal ideation (R2=.25, s.e.=1.29). In the second analysis, the prediction level of depressive symptoms and dispositional mindfulness scores had slightly decreased. The interaction between dispositional mindfulness and depressive symptoms was a significant predictor in the second stage (ß=-.16; t=-5.34, P<.001), accounting for an additional 3% of the variance of suicidal ideation (R2=.28, s.e.=1.26). For men, in the first multiple regression analysis, the FFMQ-SF score and PDQ-4 subscale score both explained 23% of the variance of suicidal ideation (R2=.23, s.e.=1.51). In the second analysis, the prediction level of borderline personality traits and dispositional mindfulness scores had decreased. The interaction between dispositional mindfulness and borderline personality traits was a significant predictor in the second stage (ß=-.27; t=-4.68, P<.001), accounting for an additional 7% of the variance of suicidal ideation (R2=.30, s.e.=1.44). For women, in the first multiple regression analysis, the FFMQ-SF score and PDQ-4 subscale score both explained 24% of the variance of suicidal ideation (R2=.24, s.e.=1.30). In the second analysis, the prediction level of borderline personality traits and dispositional mindfulness scores remained the same. The interaction between dispositional mindfulness and borderline personality traits was a significant predictor in the second stage (ß=-.19; t=-6.30, P<.001) accounting for an additional 3% of the variance of suicidal ideation (R2=.27, s.e.=1.27). CONCLUSIONS: Dispositional mindfulness appeared to be a moderator between depressive symptoms/borderline personality traits and the wish to kill oneself in both genders. This finding is relevant for prevention and therapy and suggests that mindfulness may be important and useful to reduce suicidal ideation and prevent suicidal attempts in young adults.

The Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale-2 in a French sample: Psychometric evaluation of the theoretical model.

OBJECTIVES: The Generalized Problematic Internet Use Scale-2 (GPIUS-2) is a short self-report questionnaire assessing Internet addiction based on a cognitive behavioral model. Our main goal was to evaluate the psychometric properties of its French version among a sample of students and to appraise the relevance of the generalized problematic Internet use model. METHODS: A sample of 563 university students aged between 18 and 35 years (M=20.8; SD=2.7) completed several online self-report questionnaires including the GPIUS-2, the Internet Addiction Test (IAT) and the Center for Epidemiologic Study-Depression scale (CES-D). RESULTS: Confirmatory Factorial Analyses revealed a poor but acceptable overall fit for the original five-factor model and the original four-factor model. Path analyses, testing Structural Equation Modeling provided showed a poor fit to the data, suggesting insufficient construct validity. Convergent and concurrent validities analyzed through correlational analyses revealed significant relationships between the GPIUS-2, its factors, the IAT, time spent online and the CES-D. CONCLUSIONS: This research highlights the insufficient psychometric properties of the GPIUS-2 in a French sample, similar to previous results. However, this French version appears to be a useful multidimensional tool for assessing problematic Internet use among students, and reveals promise for future research and clinical applications of the measure, given its solid theoretical basis and despite the results of this psychometric study.

[Problematic Internet use, time spent online and personality traits]. / Utilisation problématique d'Internet, temps passé en ligne et traits de personnalité.

BACKGROUND: Internet addiction or problematic Internet use is a recent and increasingly recognized disorder which has been consistently associated with many psychiatric disorders, adding to the documented negative consequences of problematic Internet use. However, very few studies have examined the relationship between problematic Internet use and personality traits and none in a French sample. Moreover, those which have evaluated this relationship have mainly been conducted on small samples. OBJECTIVE: The main goal of our study was to explore the relationship between problematic Internet use, time spent online and personality traits in a French sample, taking into account the presence of depressive symptoms, and gender. METHODS: A sample of 276 participants aged from 18 to 50 (M=28; SD=8.9) completed a questionnaire assessing problematic Internet use, time spent online, the presence of ten personality traits and depressive symptoms. RESULTS: Our results revealed significant differences between genders. Among men, problematic Internet use was associated with personality clusters A and B while in women no cluster or personality traits were associated. Time spent online was predicted by schizoid personality traits among men and avoidant personality traits among women. DISCUSSION: Our results indicate that cluster A (schizoid and schizotypal) and cluster B traits (borderline and antisocial) play a more important role in problematic Internet use than cluster C traits among men. Differences between men and women regarding the relationships between personality traits, time online and problematic Internet use may be related to differences in the activities engaged in by men and women online. We observed that communication websites use was more prevalent among women while erotic, gambling and shopping websites use was more prevalent among men suggesting that the characteristics of problematic Internet use may vary according to gender. CONCLUSION: Few studies have examined the relationship between problematic Internet use, time spent online and personality traits, and none among a French sample. These results suggest the importance of assessing the impact of personality traits on Internet use, particularly on time spent online, by differentiating results in terms of gender and online activities.

[Acculturation orientations and psychosocial adaptation among adolescents with immigrant background]. / Orientations d'acculturation et adaptation psychosociale des adolescents issus de l'immigration.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to explore the typology of adolescents with immigrant background based on the orientations of acculturation and to estimate the psychosocial adaptation of the various subtypes. METHOD: A sample of 228 French high school students with an immigrant background completed a questionnaire assessing acculturation orientations (Immigrant Acculturation Scale; Barrette et al., 2004), antisocial behaviors, depressive symptoms and self-esteem. Cluster analysis based on acculturation orientations was performed using the k-means method. RESULTS: Cluster analysis produced four distinct acculturation profiles: bicultural (31%), separated (28%), marginalized (21%), and assimilated-individualistic (20%). Adolescents in the separated and marginalized clusters, both characterized by rejection of the host culture, reported higher levels of antisocial behavior. Depressive symptoms and self-esteem did not differ between clusters. DISCUSSION: Several hypotheses may explain the association between separation and delinquency. First, separation and rejection of the host culture may lead to rebellious behavior such as delinquency. Conversely, delinquent behavior may provoke rejection or discrimination by peers or school, or legal sanctions that induce a reciprocal process of rejection of the host culture and separation. The relationship between separation and antisocial behavior may be bidirectional, each one reinforcing the other, resulting in a negative spiral. This study confirms the interest of the study of the orientations of acculturation in the understanding of the antisocial behavior of adolescents with immigrant background.

[Relationship between defense mechanism and therapeutic alliance]. / Relation entre mécanismes de défense et alliance thérapeutique.

INTRODUCTION: The therapeutic alliance can be defined as a collaborative relationship between the patient and the practitioner. It represents an essential component of the psychotherapeutic process (Ambresin et al., 2007; Cungi, 2006; Martin et al., 2000). Some authors suggest that a good alliance can have a favorable impact on the therapeutic success (Barber et al., 2000; Hubble, Duncan, & Miller 1999; Horvath & Luborsky, 1993; Horvath & Symonds, 1991). This alliance can be influenced by psychological and behavioral factors (Cungi, 2006) Thus, some defense mechanisms could prevent change or, on the contrary could facilitate adaptation (Ambresin et al., 2007) and have an impact on the therapeutic success (Muris & Merckelbach, 1996). However, the relationship between therapeutic alliance and defense mechanisms represents an insufficiently explored field (Ambresin et al., 2007; Cungi, 2006). The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between therapeutic alliance and twenty defense mechanisms in a sample of French psychiatric patients, by differentiating results in men and women. We also examined the positive and the negative therapeutic alliance. METHOD: Sixty patients aged from 18 to 58 (M=41.50; SD=11.03) completed the French versions of the Defense Style Questionnaire-40 (DSQ-40) and the Helping Alliance questionnaire-II (HAq-II). RESULTS: Therapeutic alliance was significantly associated with each defense style: mature (0.62), neurotic (0.45) P<0.01and immature (0.27) p<0.05. The mature defense style was a significant predictor of therapeutic alliance (R(2) adj=36, F=12.39, ß=0.65, P<0.01) and of positive therapeutic alliance (R(2) adj=36, F=12.34, ß=0.62, P<0.001). Among women, positive therapeutic alliance was significantly associated with all mature defenses, three neurotic defenses (reaction formation, pseudo-altruism, idealization) and four immature defenses (splitting, denial, somatization, passive aggression). Among men, three mature defenses were associated (anticipation, humor, sublimation), four neurotic (reaction formation, pseudo-altruism, idealization and undoing) and two immature (somatization and denial). The negative therapeutic alliance, in our total sample, was associated with two immature defenses (denial and dissociation). Among men, displacement was the only defense associated with negative alliance, among women no defenses was significant. DISCUSSION: These results highlight the relationship between therapeutic alliance and some defense mechanisms, like some authors have suggested (Ambresin et al., 2007; Bond & Perry, 2004; Bond, 2004). Moreover, some defenses appeared to be more associated with a positive or a negative therapeutic alliance, and could depend on the patient gender. CONCLUSION: The present study confirms the importance of taking into account the gender in the study of defense mechanisms, and to increase our knowledge about the relationship between therapeutic alliance and defense mechanisms.

[Eating disorders and depressive symptoms: an epidemiological study in a male population]. / Troubles du comportement alimentaire et symptomatologie dépressive: étude épidémiologique chez les jeunes hommes.

OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to evaluate the incidence of eating disorders, including not otherwise specified eating disorders (EDNOS) and subthreshold disorders, inappropriate compensatory behaviors (such as self-induced vomiting, strict dieting, fasting) along with depressive symptoms among young French adult males. METHOD: The sample was composed of 458 young men in age ranging from 18 to 30 years (mean age=21.9±2.4). The average body mass index was 22.8±3. Participants completed two questionnaires: the Questionnaire for Eating Disorders Diagnoses (Q-EDD) assessing full-criteria eating disorder symptoms based on DSM-IV criteria (i.e. clinical eating disorders) and subthreshold disorders, and the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression scale (CES-D) assessing depressive symptoms. RESULTS: Out of the 458 surveyed respondents, eating disorders were reported by approximately 17% of the overall sample, with 1.5% meeting diagnostic criteria for serious clinical disorders, 3% meeting diagnostic criteria for EDNOS and 12% meeting diagnostic criteria for subthreshold disorders. Exercise bulimia represented 1% of the overall sample and binge-eating disorder 2%. The most frequent subthreshold disorder was subthreshold nonbinging bulimia (7%). Participants with eating disorders were equally divided between those desiring weight gain, those desiring weight loss and those wanting to keep their current weight. Participants without eating disorders were more likely to want to gain weight compared to participants with eating disorders (45.5% versus 30% respectively; P<0.05). After controlling for body mass index, 30% of participants tended to perceive themselves as thinner than they actually were and 6% tended to perceive themselves as fatter. Regarding normal-weight participants, 28% perceived themselves as thinner and 8% as fatter than in reality. Overeating episodes were reported by 19% of participants. Binge-eating episodes (recurrent or not) were reported by 8% of young men, including 32% of participants with eating disorders and 3% of participants without eating disorder. Six percent reported repeated binging (at least twice a week for at least once a month). Inappropriate compensatory behaviors were mostly used by participants with eating disorders, except for excessive exercise (34% versus 35% for participants without eating disorders). The most typical compensatory behavior was fasting (11%). According to the cut-off score of 22, 18% of young men had a moderate to severe depressive symptomatology, including 5% of participants who also reported an eating disorder (i.e. 30 participants). A one-way ANOVA was conducted to examine differences in depressive symptoms as a function of eating disorder groups, namely the clinical eating disorders sample (n=22), the subthreshold disorders sample (n=54) and the asymptomatic sample (participants without eating disorder; n=382). Results were statistically significant, (F(2,455)=7.27, P<0.001) and post-hoc tests (Scheffé tests) were used to examine the group differences. The mean CES-D scores for the clinical eating disorders sample (19.45±8.2; P<0.05) and the subthreshold disorders sample (18.15±10.9; P<0.05) were significantly higher than for the asymptomatic sample (14.19±8.9). There was no significant difference between the two eating disorder groups (P>0.05). DISCUSSION: The results demonstrate that a significant proportion of men with eating disorders manifest comorbid depressive symptomatology. These results suggest that EDNOS and subthreshold disorders should be taken into consideration, as they represent 15% of the total sample. Participants reported high rate of excessive exercise and fasting, which could reflect the importance of muscle tone or strategies to increase muscle mass. Further research is necessary in order to better understand male eating behaviors and disorders.

[French validation of the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale]. / Validation française de la Revised Paranormal Belief Scale.

INTRODUCTION: For the last decades, many researchers have focused on paranormal beliefs. Beliefs in the existence of paranormal phenomena would be common and studies conducted in westernized countries have highlighted a high prevalence of individuals believing in the existence of such phenomena. Tobacyk and Milford (1984) developed the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale (RPBS) for assessing beliefs in paranormal phenomena. This 26-item self-reported questionnaire, measuring beliefs in phenomena such as witchcraft or superstition, is one of the most widely used questionnaires to assess such beliefs. While studies focusing on paranormal beliefs tend to develop, there is no French self-report instrument to assess this construct. Researchers have tried to identify specific variables that might be linked to such beliefs, and some have focused on personalities of individuals who believe in the paranormal. Schizotypy has been reported to be significantly and positively correlated with paranormal beliefs. OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was a) to validate the French version of the RPBS and b) to explore the relationship between Schizotypal Personality Disorder traits and paranormal beliefs. METHODS: After being recruited using the Internet and social networks (e.g. facebook), a sample of 313 participants (mean [SD] age=31.12 [11.62]; range 18-58years) completed the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire (SPQ-B), assessing Schizotypal Personality Disorder traits and the Revised Paranormal Belief Scale assessing paranormal beliefs. RESULTS: Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to test the proposed 7-factor structure of the RPB developed by Tobacyk. Several adjustment indices were used to evaluate the model. As the first model did not fit the original one, others models were tested. Our findings indicated that a seven-factor solution, excluding 2 items, best described the item structure: (1) spiritualism, (2) superstition, (3) witchcraft, (4) precognition, (5) traditional religious belief, (6) psi, (7) and extraordinary life forms. Relationships between paranormal beliefs and Schizotypal Personality Disorder traits were also explored. Correlations between some subscales of the SPQ-B and some dimensions of the RPBS were found. The "cognition-perception" subscale was strongly correlated with the "witchcraft", "spirituality", "precognition" and "psi" subscales. Nevertheless, this subscale was lightly correlated with the "traditional religious belief" and "extraordinary life forms" dimensions. No correlation was found between the others dimensions of schizotypy as "disorganized" and "interpersonal" and dimensions of paranormal beliefs. DISCUSSION: The initial model developed by Tobacyk and Milford did not fit the data from the French population. The low internal consistencies regarding both superstition and extraordinary life forms dimensions highlighted some cultural differences that have to be acknowledged. This result emphasizes that beliefs in some extraordinary life forms as Loch Ness monster are not an important dimension to take into account in a French population. Our findings also indicate that the RPBS is a valid and reliable instrument for assessing paranormal beliefs in a French population. Our findings also highlight that such beliefs are associated with Schizotypal Personality Disorder traits. Developing research on the association between Schizotypal Personality Disorder traits and such beliefs appears of prime importance. Future studies focusing on features associated with paranormal beliefs are also warranted.

[Cannabis use and antisocial behaviors in high-school students]. / Consommation de cannabis et comportements antisociaux dans un échantillon d'adolescents scolarisés.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to evaluate the contribution of cannabis to the prediction of delinquent behaviors. METHOD: Participants were 312 high-school students who completed self-report questionnaires measuring antisocial behaviors, the frequency of cannabis and alcohol use, psychopathic traits using the Youth Psychopathic traits Inventory, borderline traits, depressive symptoms, socio-economic status, life events, attachment to parents, and low academic achievement. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to investigate the contribution of cannabis use and potential confounding variables to antisocial behaviors. RESULTS: Boys reported a greater number of delinquent behaviors than girls (10.2±9.2 vs. 5.4±5.3, t=9.2, P<0.001). Thirty-seven percent of boys and 24 % of girls reported having used cannabis at least once during the last six months (P<0.001). Among cannabis users, boys reported a greater frequency of use than girls: average use for boys was 2-3 times per month whereas average use for girls was once a month (3.4±2.3 vs. 2.6±2, t=2.9, P=0.004). Cannabis users reported a greater number of antisocial behaviors than non-users (13.2±9.9 vs. 6.1±6.3, t=13.6, P<0.001). Multiple regression analyses showed that cannabis use was a significant independent predictor of antisocial behaviors in both gender (ß=.35, P<.001 in boys, ß=.29, P<.001 in girls) after adjustment for alcohol use, psychopathological and sociofamilial variables. DISCUSSION: The unique and independent association between frequency of cannabis use and antisocial behaviors does not indicate the causal direction of the relationship. It may be that cannabis use induces antisocial behaviors by enhancing impulsivity or irritability or by the need for money to buy cannabis. Conversely, antisocial behaviors may lead to cannabis use either through becoming used to transgressions or through the influence of delinquent peers using cannabis. This link is probably bidirectional, cannabis use and antisocial behaviors influencing mutually in a negative interactive spiral. This association suggests that these two problems are to be jointly approached when treating adolescents using cannabis or having antisocial behaviors.

[Motivations for cannabis cessation, coping and adaptation strategies, and perceived benefits: impact on cannabis use relapse and abstinence]. / Motivations et stratégies lors d'arrêt spontané de la consommation de cannabis: quel impact sur les rechutes ?

OBJECTIVES: While cannabis has been recognized as the most illicit drug use in the world, few studies focusing on cannabis self-change and cannabis relapse or abstinence in adult non-treatment samples have been conducted. The first aim of this study was to understand cannabis self-change motives, coping and adaptation strategies and evaluating perceived benefits from cannabis cessation. The second aim was to compare, in a convenience sample of non-treatment-seeking adult cannabis smokers, motivations to quit smoking cannabis, coping and adaptive strategies, as well as perceived benefit from cessation between cannabis abstinent and participants who relapse. METHOD: Sixty-three participants (31 men and 32 women) who attempted to quit cannabis in a non-controlled environment without medical help and were enrolled. They completed the Marijuana Quit Questionnaire (MJQQ), a self-report questionnaire collecting information in three areas: sociodemographic characteristics, cannabis use history (including any associated problems), and participants' characteristics regarding their "most difficult" (self-defined) attempt to quit in a non-controlled environment. For this study the index quit attempt was characterized in two areas: reasons for quitting marijuana, coping strategies used while quitting. Two additional questionnaires were added to the MJQQ; the Brief Cope, and a questionnaire assessing perceived benefit of the cannabis quit attempt. The participants were on average 28.5 years old (±5.1), and started using cannabis on average at 15.8 years (±2.8). Seventy-four percent (n=45) of the participants met the DSM-IV criteria for cannabis dependence before cannabis cessation. T-tests were used to compare abstainers and participants who relapsed after the quit attempt. RESULTS: Realizing that cannabis induces disabling cognitive disorders such as affection of memory, concentration and attention were reported by 71% of the participant as a motivation for quitting cannabis use. Then, being more energetic (reported by 68%) and more active during the day (62%), being able to control their life (67%), proving themselves they could quit (60%), saving money (60%), as well being less worried about their health (57%) were also reported as motivations to quit cannabis use. Different coping and adaptation strategies were also reported. First, environmental strategies such as disposing of both cannabis (71%) and equipment to smoke (71%), no longer going to places where cannabis is smoked (33%) or lifestyle changes (68%) were used to cope with cannabis cessation. Then cognitive strategies such as motivation, willingness (71%), self-control and having a positive perception of the situation (68%) were also reported. Regarding coping strategies, participants accepted and learned how to live with the new situation (68%), and social support from family (32%) and friends (30%) were reported. Perceived benefits were linked with motivations for cannabis cessation. Thus, participants reported having more energy (75%), being more active (73%), less tired (70%) and recovering memory (57%) after cannabis cessation. Fifty-two percent of participants relapsed after the quit attempt. Abstainers had significantly higher scores on two subscales: the "negative impact of cannabis use on one's health and on self and social image" (t(61)=-3.84; P<0.001; d=-0.76) and "negative reinforcement (e.g. seeking relief for specific physical symptoms or social problems caused by cannabis)" (t(61)=3.56; P=0.01; d=-0.51) than non-anstainers. Non-abstainers reported significantly less social support from family (t(61)=-3.85; P<0.001, d=-0.76) and friends (t(61)=-2.22; P=00.03, d=-0.51) than abstainers. CONCLUSION: This study underlines different aspects of cannabis cessation, self-change, relapse, and abstinence. Social and family support, as well as social network appears to be of prime importance in relapses and prevention programs for cannabis use. New perspectives for research on cannabis cessation self-change and relapses are thus highlighted, notably regarding factors that could predict relapse or success in cessation of smoking cannabis. Research on cannabis self-change and relapse are warranted for both prevention and therapeutic programs.

[Psychometric properties of the French version of the How I Think Questionnaire]. / Étude des qualités psychométriques de la version française du How I Think Questionnaire dans un échantillon d'adolescents français.

UNLABELLED: Certain research has pointed out the relative importance of cognitive distortions in the development of antisocial behavior. Distortions of social cognitions that facilitate aggression and other types of antisocial behavior have been described as self-serving cognitive distortions (Barriga et al., 2001 [2]). Considering the importance of the assessment of delinquent cognitive distortions, an instrument has been validated to measure self-serving cognitive distortions: the How I Think Questionnaire (HIT-Q, Barriga et al., 2001 [2]). Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the convergent, discriminant and concurrent validity of a French version of the HIT-Q and its four dimensions (self-centered, blaming other, minimizing/mislabeling and assuming the worst). METHOD: A sample of 972 French high-school students completed the Youth Psychopathic traits Inventory (YPI ; Andershed et al., 2002 ; Andershed et al., 2007 [26,27]) used to evaluate the convergent validity of the HIT-Q. To investigate discriminant validity, participants also completed the Sociomoral Reflection Measure-Short Form (SMR-SF ; Gibbs et al., 1992 [28]) and the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI ; Davis, 1983 [29]) used to assess cognitive and affective empathy. To measure antisocial behavior, the French versions of the Self-Reported Delinquency Questionnaire (SRDQ ; Le Blanc and Frechette, 1989 [22]), the Antisocial Behavior Scale (ABS ; Schawb-Stone et al., 1996 [23]), the Self-Reported Delinquency Behavior (SRDB ; Elliott and Menard, 1996 [24]) and three items of the Sexual Experiences Survey (SES ; Koss et al., 2007 [25]) were used. Two samples were composed based on the same socio-demographic (age and gender) and socio-economic characteristics and ethnic background. French males scoring in the upper quartile on the antisocial behavior total score were classified in the antisocial group (n=135) and the rest of the sample in the non-antisocial group (n=306). Convergent and discriminant validity was determined using Pearson coefficients of correlation. One-way analyses of variance were used for mean scores comparisons. Regression analysis was used to evaluate the relative contribution of self-serving cognitive distortions to the prediction of antisocial behavior. RESULTS: The French version of the HIT-Q showed acceptable reliability and validity and also a satisfying convergent and discriminant validity. The HIT-Q and its dimensions were positively and highly correlated to psychopathic traits (r=0.50 to r=0.61, p<0.05) ; these findings suggested a good convergent validity. The correlation between self-serving cognitive distortions and social moral reasoning (r=-0.23 to r=-0.28, p<0.05) and empathy (r=-0.13 to r=-0.20, p<0.05) appeared to be negative and low ; this relationship was conclusive and showed a satisfying discriminant validity. Mean comparison showed that participants in the antisocial group reported higher scores of self-serving cognitive distortions and its dimensions than the non-antisocial group. Self-serving cognitive distortions significantly predicted antisocial behavior (ß=0.58, SE=0.02, p<0.001) and explained 34% of the variance. DISCUSSION: The study of the convergent validity of the HIT-Q with the YPI as external criteria showed they were closely linked, which suggests self-serving cognitive distortion may be the cognitive expression of psychopathic traits. The discriminant validity of the HIT-Q with moral reasoning and empathy was satisfying and similar to previous results (Lardén et al., 2006 [20]). In concordance with previous studies, delinquent cognitive distortions appeared to be a significant predictor of antisocial behavior and moreover, participants in the antisocial group reported higher scores of self-serving cognitive distortions (Capuano, 2007 ; Barriga and Gibbs, 1996 ; Nas et al., 2008 [10-12]). CONCLUSION: The present study showed that the French version of the HIT-Q presents good psychometric properties.

[Relationships between emotional intelligence, alexithymia and interpersonal delinquent behaviour in a sample of high-school students]. / Relations entre intelligence émotionnelle, alexithymie et comportements délinquants de type interpersonnel dans un échantillon d'adolescents scolarisés.

INTRODUCTION: A positive link between alexithymia and delinquency, as well as a negative link between alexithymia and emotional intelligence, has already been demonstrated. Previous studies have highlighted that emotional intelligence is associated with antisocial behaviour. Even though the frequency of alexithymia has been explored in non-clinical samples of adolescents, the relationship between alexithymia and delinquency has not been studied in community samples of adolescents. Furthermore, the link between alexithymia, emotional intelligence and interpersonal delinquency has never been explored in such a sample. The aim of the current study was to explore the relationship between alexithymia, emotional intelligence and interpersonal delinquency in a sample of high-school students. METHOD: A sample of 176 high school students (98 girls and 78 boys; mean age=16.6±0.77) completed self-report questionnaires. Interpersonal delinquency was measured using self-report delinquency questionnaires. The answers are rated on a 5-point scale (from 0 times to 5 or more times) depending on the frequency of the involvement during the past year. Alexithymia was assessed using the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20; Bagby et al., 1994 [14]). Three specific dimensions of alexithymia can be assessed: the difficulty to identify feelings, the difficulty to describe feelings, and the externally-oriented cognitive style (α=.71; α=.60, α=.43, respectively). Emotional intelligence was assessed using the French version of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-Adolescent Short Form (TEIQue-ASF). RESULTS: Among participants with a moderate to high level of interpersonal delinquent behaviour, boys presented significantly higher scores on the total TAS score than boys with a lower level of delinquent behaviour. This difference was almost significant among girls. Among boys and girls, only the score on the "difficulty to identify feelings" subscale was significantly higher in the group with a moderate to high level of delinquent behaviour. There was no significant difference in TEIque-ASF total score depending on the gender. As boys reported a higher level of interpersonal delinquency than girls, regression analysis was conducted for males and females separately. Alexithymia and emotional intelligence were entered in both analyses. These variables explained 12% of the variance in interpersonal delinquency among boys (F (7, 110)<6.08, P<.05), and 6% among girls, (F (7, 110)<4.02, P<.05). Alexithymia was the only significant predictor of interpersonal delinquency for both genders. A second multiple regression analysis was conducted using the three subscales of the TAS-20 (Difficulty to identify feelings; Difficulty to describe feelings; Externally-oriented cognitive style). These variables explained 7% of the variance in interpersonal delinquency among boys (F (7, 110)<2.87, P<.05), and 8% among girls, (F (7, 110)<3.79, P<.05). The difficulty to identify feelings was the only significant predictor of interpersonal delinquency. DISCUSSION: In line with previous studies, emotional intelligence was linked to delinquent behaviour. The results of the current study show that only alexithymia, especially the difficulty to identify feelings, and to distinguish them from bodily sensations, was significantly linked to interpersonal delinquency among both girls and boys. Difficulty to identify feelings, especially when cognitive treatment is required, could be the root cause of dysfunctional behaviours. As a consequence, individuals are led "to outsource their internal tensions" by dysfunctional behaviours such as delinquency. CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest the importance of taking into account the emotional dimensions in the care of teenagers presenting antisocial behaviours. It appears of prime importance to lead young people presenting antisocial behaviours to identify their feelings.

[Evaluation of the characteristics of addiction to online video games among adolescents and young adults]. / Évaluation des caractéristiques sociales, des stratégies de coping, de l'estime de soi et de la symptomatologie dépressive en relation avec la dépendance aux jeux vidéo en ligne chez les adolescents et les jeunes adultes.

OBJECTIVES: The objectives of this study are to assess the social characteristics, coping strategies, self-esteem and depressive symptoms in a population-dependent and not dependent on video games online, in order to investigate the correlations existing between these characteristics. METHOD: The study was conducted among 193 subjects. Data were collected through a global questionnaire constituted of several scales. The global questionnaire consisted of a sociodemographic part (age, sex, social status, most played game, number of hours per week devoted to the game), a questionnaire assessing dependence and abuse according to the DSM -IV-TR, the feeling of social belonging scale (or ESAS which was doubled to collect information about the belonging in real life and virtual life), the Ways of coping check-list (WCCL), the Rosenberg self-esteem scale (EES), the Quality of interpersonal relations scale (EQRI), the UCLA Loneliness scale and the Center for epidemiologic studies depression scale (CES-D). The questionnaire was broadcasted on the Internet, specifically in the forums dedicated to "massively multiplayer online role-playing games" and in young people's forums in specific subject headings. RESULTS: The results show that there are significant differences between the two populations, especially regarding the social characteristics, depressive symptoms, self-esteem and coping strategies. In the entire population, 66 subjects (42%) were considered dependent on online video games and 92 subjects (58%) were not considered dependent. In the dependent population, the number of hours spent playing per week, the score of social belonging in the virtual life, the coping focused on the emotion, the score of loneliness or social isolation and the score obtained on the CES-D appeared more important than the scores obtained by the non-dependent. Moreover, the average age, the scores of social belonging in real life, self-esteem and sub-dimensions "family" and "friends" of the quality of interpersonal relations scale are lower than those obtained by the non-dependent. Furthermore, the number of hours of play per week, the feeling of social belonging, self-esteem, quality of family relationships and loneliness are predictive factors of addiction to video games online. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that one of the crucial issues in dependence is the monitoring of game practice. Indeed, dependence on video games is based on a real hardware that needs to be controlled and managed by a third party before the emergence of a dependency. Therefore the results of this study suggest the establishment of better prevention, especially among parents who are confronted in majority with a world and a technology that is unknown or too complicated. In the case of a proven addiction, the study proposes care therapy focused on the social link, especially the family link, and a particular care to work on self-esteem.

[Contribution of psychopathic traits to delinquent behaviors in a sample of high-school male students]. / Contribution des traits psychopathiques aux comportements délinquants dans un échantillon de garçons adolescents scolarisés.

UNLABELLED: The aim of this study was to evaluate the contribution of psychopathic personality traits to delinquent behaviour after controlling for borderline personality traits, depressive symptomatology, dissociation and cannabis use in male adolescent delinquent behaviour. METHOD: A sample of 155 young male participants (mean age=17+/-1.5) completed self-report questionnaires. Delinquent behaviour was assessed with the Antisocial behavior scales (ABS, Schawb-Stone et al., 1999) which include three subscales assessing behavior problems of different severity: conduct problems, assessing relatively mild behavior problems; less severe delinquency, assessing non-violent antisocial behavior; severe antisocial behavior, exploring relatively serious aggressive and antisocial behavior. The respondents were asked to report on a 5-point scale how many times (ranging from "0 times" to "5 or more times") they were involved in the described behaviors during the past year. In this study, only the two subscales assessing less severe delinquency and severe antisocial behavior were used. Personality psychopathic traits were assessed with the Youth psychopathic traits inventory (YPI; Andershed et al., 2002). It consists in three scales assessing interpersonal, affective (with callousness, which is considered as the core dimension of a psychopathy) and lifestyle traits of the psychopathic personality (alpha=0.90, alpha=0.81 and alpha=0.77, respectively). Other questionnaires assessed borderline personality traits (Borderline personality features scale for children), depression (Center for epidemiological studies-depression scale), dissociation (Adolescent dissociative experience scale) (alpha=0.83, 0.88 and 0.92 respectively) and cannabis use. RESULTS: In the present study, the frequency of antisocial behaviour was important (55%): 7% of the adolescents had stolen a bike or a car at least once, 11% had committed a theft at least once, 36% had started a fight at least once, and 25% had threatened someone seriously or beaten up somebody at least once, 15% had had hurt someone badly in a physical fight so they had to be treated by a doctor or a nurse at least once, 21% had carried a blade, knife or gun at least once, 9% had been involved in a gang fight at least once, and 12% had carried a blade, knife or gun in school. A multiple regression analysis predicting antisocial behaviour in the total sample with the psychopathic and borderline traits, depressive and dissociative symptoms, alcohol and cannabis use, showed that delinquent behaviours were only predicted by alcohol and cannabis use and the psychopathic trait "callousness". DISCUSSION: This study suggests the importance of callousness in explaining adolescent delinquent behaviour. Other psychopathological variables did not appear to influence delinquent behaviour in this sample.

[Validation of the French version of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale-3 (SATAQ-3)]. / The Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale-3 (SATAQ-3): étude de validation de la version Française.

INTRODUCTION: Body image literature suggests that the sociocultural environment contributes to the development and maintenance of body dissatisfaction and eating disorders by conveying thin standards of thinness. Three main sources of sociocultural influences were highlighted: family, peers and media. These three sources of pressure can lead to the internalization of messages about the importance of thinness and beauty. Among the various sources of sociocultural influences, media appear to be the most powerful communicator of these standards. Thompson et al. [Intern J Eat Disord 35 (2004) 293-304] developed a multidimensional questionnaire to assess the sociocultural influence of media on appearance: The Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Scale-3 (SATAQ-3). The SATAQ-3 is a 30-item scale composed of Likert-items in five points (1: completely disagree; 5: completely agree) including four subscales: information, pressures, internalization-general and internalization-athlete. This scale is used in Anglo-Saxon research, notably in clinical populations presenting eating disorder pathologies. People with eating disorders generally show higher scores on these four subscales. OBJECTIVE: The present study is to validate the French version of the SATAQ-3. METHOD: The sample consisted of 818 teenagers from private and public middle schools aged an average of 16.8 ± 1.2 years old, with an average body mass index (BMI) of 20.7 ± 2.9. Participants completed two questionnaires: the body shape questionnaire (BSQ) assessing body dissatisfaction, in particular worries about weight and body shape, and the SATAQ-3. We carried out the translation of the SATAQ-3 in parallel back-translation. First, two French-speaking people translated the English version into French. Then, two English-speakers translated the French version without the assistance of the original version. Thereafter, the two English-language versions (original version and version obtained by back-translation) were compared in order to ensure that there were no errors of meaning in the French version. RESULTS: A factorial analysis of the SATAQ-3 was conducted on the 818 subjects through extraction of the main components method with the extraction's rule of the curve for the Eigen values; the data was transformed through Varimax rotation. The factorial analysis showed five factors with Eigen values greater than 1 (11.3; 2.6; 2.1; 1.6; 1.07). The factors were then composed of the items presenting substantial saturation, greater than or equal to 0.5. Since only one item (20) presented saturation on factor 5, the four-factor solution was retained. These four factors accounted for 17.7, 16.3, 9.7 and 14.8% of the overall variance, respectively. This four-factor solution explains 58.5% of the total variance. The oblique rotation analysis underlined moderate to strong correlations between the four factors (0.3 to 0.66). The four factors of the factorial analysis correspond to the four subscales of the initial American study: pressures (Cronbach's alpha=0.89), information (Cronbach's alpha=0.87), internalization-athlete (Cronbach's alpha=0.82), internalization-general (Cronbach's alpha=0.92). The four subscales are positively correlated with the BSQ (0.26 to 0.55). The correlation for age and BMI indicates a very low association between these two variables and the SATAQ-3 subscales, with only one significant correlation (SATAQ-3 pressures and BMI=0.14; p<0.05). Results of a regression analysis showed that body dissatisfaction (BSQ) was predicted by pressures (ß=0.37, t=10.2; p<0.0001), internalization-general (ß=0.29, t=8.1; p<0.0001). This model accounted for 38.1% of the variance of body dissatisfaction. DISCUSSION: This study shows elements of satisfactory validity for the French version of the SATAQ-3. Indeed, as for the original scale validation, the current factorial analysis revealed four factors corresponding to the four subscales developed by the authors along with similar alpha values. Research relating to the risk factors in the development of body image disturbances and eating disorders are important given their implications for future strategies of intervention and prevention. Anglo-Saxon research identified media as a powerful and influential communicator concerning sociocultural standards of beauty. Because of the lack of French studies on this subject, the newly validated SATAQ-3 could provide a means for exploring new issues related to eating disorders in this population. Implications of the SATAQ-3 are multiple, particularly to detect "risk groups" and to prevent body image disturbance and eating behaviours. The current results provide a means for research on media influence, notably in French clinical samples with eating disorders.

[Therapeutic alliance in psychotherapy: the contribution of empirical research]. / L'alliance thérapeutique en psychothérapie: apports de la recherche empirique.

INTRODUCTION: The therapeutic alliance in psychotherapy refers to the quality of the relationship between therapist and patient, as well as their agreement upon the aims and tasks of the treatment. This concept is widely used in clinical settings and, since the validation of a number of instruments, has become the focus of much research. However, the quantity of experimental evidence now available impedes the dissemination of these findings among clinicians in a concise manner. LITERATURE FINDINGS: The present paper aimed to provide a review of the literature reporting experimental evidence focusing on the therapeutic alliance. In order to do this, findings were organized around four main issues: the relationship between the therapeutic alliance and clinical outcome; the evolution of the therapeutic alliance over time; the mechanism of action by which the therapeutic alliance encourages change, and finally the factors that have been shown to influence the creation and evolution of the alliance. DISCUSSION: This review reveals that the therapeutic alliance is to this day one of the most investigated factors of psychotherapy. The therapeutic alliance enables change to take place during psychotherapy and, along with a number of specific factors, appears to be important for clinical outcome. Over time, the therapeutic alliance has been seen to evolve and several patterns have been identified. A number of characteristics inherent to the patient, the therapist, and even their interaction have been reported to influence the development and strength of the therapeutic alliance. Several hypotheses have been put forward to account for the mechanism by which the therapeutic alliance encourages change. CONCLUSION: The area of research regarding the therapeutic alliance remains dynamic. Despite the present body of knowledge surrounding this concept, a number of research questions await further investigation.

Parental attitudes, body image disturbance and disordered eating amongst adolescents and young adults: a review.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this paper was to review the existing literature regarding the contribution of parental influences to the sociocultural pressures on body image disturbance and disordered eating so as to highlight principal findings so that parents can be given practical information and identify areas that require further research. METHODS: Relevant articles were located through Pubmed, Sciencedirect and PsychInfo, as well as the screening of bibliographies. RESULTS: The available data suggest that parents are strong communicators of sociocultural pressures. Parental influences via verbal messages and active encouragement have been shown to have more impact on offspring's body concerns and eating behaviours than modelling effects. Both mothers and fathers are important sources of influence for their offspring. CONCLUSION: Considering the role of parents could help improve public health management. Futher exploration of the way adolescents and young adults interpret and perceive parental attitudes and of potential protective factors is necessary.

[Pregnancy following anonymous oocyte donation: Experience and feelings]. / Appréhension et vécu d'une grossesse obtenue après un don d'ovocyte anonyme.

OBJECTIVES: This qualitative study focuses on feelings of women who receive an anonymous oocyte donation. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A heterogeneous group of 12 women who were mothers or pregnant following a oocyte donation or who were waiting for a donation took part in the study. All women participated in a face to face or a telephone semi-directive interview. Questions dealt with desire for children, feelings about difficulties to have a child, place of the oocyte donor and position about revelation of origins. RESULTS: Several key ideas about the experience of oocyte donation can be brought out from the analysis of those interviews, particularly the psychological process implied in losing one's hope for a biological child, ambivalence towards donors, and questionings about this specific mode of conception. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Women's satisfaction when the project for having a child is brought to its completion, hides neither complexity nor psychological questionings entailed by the donation process which includes a third during the conception. This study underlines the need for psychological accompaniment.

[The primiparae couple's experience of childbirth: quantitative study]. / Vécu de l'accouchement par le couple primipare : étude quantitative.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this research was to study childbirth experience for the primiparae couple and their emotional state in early post-partum. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Thirty-three couples were interviewed 2 days after the birth. A questionnaire on childbirth experience and the EPDS were carried out. RESULTS: According to the results, mothers feel less satisfied, less calm, more useful and suffer more than fathers. Moreover, they consider father's participation more active and more supportive than themselves assess it. Experience of childbirth is linked with parent's emotional state in early postpartum. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: These results stress the importance to take into account the woman, the men and the couple as three separate and singular units and to create space for dialogue before and after childbirth.

[The impact of exposure to images of ideally thin models on body dissatisfaction in young French and Italian women]. / L'impact de l'exposition à des images de minceur idéalisée sur l'insatisfaction corporelle chez des jeunes femmes françaises et italiennes.

AIMS: The thin-ideal of feminine beauty has a strong impact on body image and plays a central part in eating disorders. This ideal is widely promoted by the media images that flood western societies. Although the harmful effects of exposure to thin-ideal media images have been repeatedly demonstrated experimentally in English-speaking western countries, no such studies exist in southern Europe. There is evidence to suggest that the use of average-size models could reduce these negative effects. This study investigates body image amongst French and Italian students following exposure to media images of thin or average-size models, with a neutral or supportive slogan. METHODS: The data were gathered in three locations: the psychology departments of the Universities of Padua, Italy, and Toulouse, France, and lastly high schools in the Toulouse area. A total of 299 girls took part in the study; their average age was 19.9 years old (S.D.=2.54) In order to investigate the effects of media images, we created three fake advertisements, allegedly promoting body-cream. The first advertisement displayed an ideally-thin model accompanied by a neutral slogan. In the second, the model was average-size with the same neutral slogan. The last advertisement also contained the average-size model, but with a supportive slogan designed to convey acceptance of deviations from the social norms of thinness. The participants first graded themselves on a VAS of body dissatisfaction (0 to 10). On the basis of this score, we created a first group containing girls reporting body dissatisfaction (VAS>or=5), the second with those reporting no body dissatisfaction (VAS<5). Participants were then randomly exposed to one of the three advertisements, after which they filled in the body dissatisfaction sub-scale of the Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI-2). RESULTS: The results showed that girls with initial body dissatisfaction reported higher body dissatisfaction after being exposed to images of ideally thin models than images of average-size models (F(1.32)=4.64, p=0.039). However, there was no significant difference between body dissatisfaction scores reported after exposure to images of average-size models accompanied by neutral or supportive slogans (F(1.39)=0.093, p=0.76). CONCLUSIONS: This study illustrates the negative effects of exposure to thin-ideal media images among students with body dissatisfaction. The use of average-size models in the media and advertising might help reduce these effects. No improvement was obtained via the use of a supportive slogan. These results highlight the importance of media literacy campaigns in the prevention of eating disorders.