Improve animal health to reduce livestock emissions: quantifying an open goal.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from livestock production must be urgently tackled to substantially reduce their contribution to global warming. Simply reducing livestock numbers to this end risks impacting negatively on food security, rural livelihoods and climate change adaptation. We argue that significant mitigation of livestock emissions can be delivered immediately by improving animal health and hence production efficiency, but this route is not prioritized because its benefits, although intuitive, are poorly quantified. Rigorous methodology must be developed to estimate emissions from animal disease and hence achievable benefits from improved health through interventions. If, as expected, climate change is to affect the distribution and severity of health conditions, such quantification becomes of even greater importance. We have therefore developed a framework and identified data sources for robust quantification of the relationship between animal health and greenhouse gas emissions, which could be applied to drive and account for positive action. This will not only help mitigate climate change but at the same time promote cost-effective food production and enhanced animal welfare, a rare win-win in the search for a sustainable planetary future.

Resistance of strongylid nematodes to anthelmintic drugs and driving factors at Czech goat farms.

BACKGROUND: Strongylid nematode infections may negatively affect both animal health and welfare, with deleterious consequences for livestock productivity. Many farmers in recent decades have relied on anthelmintics as the sole strategy of control, but the intensive use of these chemotherapeutics has led to the development of anthelmintic resistance (AR). Knowledge of both the efficacy of anthelmintics and factors promoting AR are essential to effectively control nematode infections, but no information on these topics for goats in the Czech Republic (CR) is available. This survey aimed to determine the occurrence of AR at Czech goat farms and to identify risk factors for the development of AR. A total of 24 herds of dairy goats across the CR were evaluated using in vitro tests for detecting AR, and a questionnaire survey was carried out to evaluate factors associated with AR. RESULTS: Resistance against benzimidazoles was confirmed at 18 (75%) farms, and the level of resistance was high in four (22%) of the affected herds based on the egg hatch test. Ivermectin-resistant nematodes were detected in 13 (54%) herds using the larval development test; Teladorsagia/Trichostrongylus and Haemonchus were the predominant types of resistant larvae. Eight (62%) of the affected herds were evaluated as highly resistant to ivermectin. Eleven (46%) of the herds were resistant to both benzimidazoles and ivermectin. This report is the first on dual AR in the CR. A univariate logistic regression analysis indicated that a high stocking rate and farmer inexperience were significantly associated with ivermectin and benzimidazole resistance, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The results of our survey suggest that AR is widespread amongst herds of dairy goats in the CR, likely due to inappropriate practices of pasture and health management. AR may be an issue for expanding dairy-goat production in the CR in the near future unless both veterinary practitioners and farmers widely adopt strategies to prevent the development of AR.

Control of helminth ruminant infections by 2030.

Helminth infections have large negative impacts on production efficiency in ruminant farming systems worldwide, and their effective management is essential if livestock production is to increase to meet future human needs for dietary protein. The control of helminths relies heavily on routine use of chemotherapeutics, but this approach is unsustainable as resistance to anthelmintic drugs is widespread and increasing. At the same time, infection patterns are being altered by changes in climate, land-use and farming practices. Future farms will need to adopt more efficient, robust and sustainable control methods, integrating ongoing scientific advances. Here, we present a vision of helminth control in farmed ruminants by 2030, bringing to bear progress in: (1) diagnostic tools, (2) innovative control approaches based on vaccines and selective breeding, (3) anthelmintics, by sustainable use of existing products and potentially new compounds, and (4) rational integration of future control practices. In this review, we identify the technical advances that we believe will place new tools in the hands of animal health decision makers in 2030, to enhance their options for control and allow them to achieve a more integrated and sustainable approach to helminth control in support of animal welfare and production.

Risk factors for the presence of Fasciola hepatica antibodies in bulk-milk samples and their association with milk production decreases, in Cuban dairy cattle.

BACKGROUND: Worldwide, Fasciola hepatica infection causes high production losses in the livestock industry. Recently, studies have analyzed the association between measurements of F. hepatica infection intensity and herd management practices. The aim of the present study, the first of its kind in a subtropical region, was to evaluate associations between F. hepatica bulk-tank milk ELISA results with herd management factors and milk yield in dairy herds, in Camagüey, Cuba. The SVANOVIR® F. hepatica-AB ELISA was used to measure F. hepatica antibody levels in a random sample of 516 dairy herds during the period of May-July of 2014. Farm management practice data were collected using a questionnaire. RESULTS: With 82% of the herds testing positive, the results indicate that F. hepatica is very widespread in this area. Reductions in milk production of 18 and 32% were observed in herds with Optical Density Ratios (ODR) of 0.3-0.6 and > 0.6, respectively, when compared to herds with ODR <  0.3. Overall, the longer the milking cows were put out to pasture, the higher the levels of anti-parasite antibodies. Co-grazing with sheep and goats also significantly increased the risk of high ODR. CONCLUSIONS: Our data show a widespread occurrence of the parasite as well as a major potential impact of the infection on the Cuban development goal of becoming self-sufficient in milk production. Our risk factor analysis suggests that the prevention of infection around water sources, and the separation of cattle from small ruminants could be useful control measures. This is the first epidemiological survey of F. hepatica abundance, and associated reductions in milk yield, in dairy herds in Cuba.

Current and future distribution of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae) in WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region.

BACKGROUND: Aedes-borne diseases as dengue, zika, chikungunya and yellow fever are an emerging problem worldwide, being transmitted by Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. Lack of up to date information about the distribution of Aedes species hampers surveillance and control. Global databases have been compiled but these did not capture data in the WHO Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR), and any models built using these datasets fail to identify highly suitable areas where one or both species may occur. The first objective of this study was therefore to update the existing Ae. aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762) and Ae. albopictus (Skuse, 1895) compendia and the second objective was to generate species distribution models targeted to the EMR. A final objective was to engage the WHO points of contacts within the region to provide feedback and hence validate all model outputs. METHODS: The Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus compendia provided by Kraemer et al. (Sci Data 2:150035, 2015; Dryad Digit Repos, 2015) were used as starting points. These datasets were extended with more recent species and disease data. In the next step, these sets were filtered using the Köppen-Geiger classification and the Mahalanobis distance. The occurrence data were supplemented with pseudo-absence data as input to Random Forests. The resulting suitability and maximum risk of establishment maps were combined into hard-classified maps per country for expert validation. RESULTS: The EMR datasets consisted of 1995 presence locations for Ae. aegypti and 2868 presence locations for Ae. albopictus. The resulting suitability maps indicated that there exist areas with high suitability and/or maximum risk of establishment for these disease vectors in contrast with previous model output. Precipitation and host availability, expressed as population density and night-time lights, were the most important variables for Ae. aegypti. Host availability was the most important predictor in case of Ae. albopictus. Internal validation was assessed geographically. External validation showed high agreement between the predicted maps and the experts' extensive knowledge of the terrain. CONCLUSION: Maps of distribution and maximum risk of establishment were created for Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus for the WHO EMR. These region-specific maps highlighted data gaps and these gaps will be filled using targeted monitoring and surveillance. This will increase the awareness and preparedness of the different countries for Aedes borne diseases.

DISCONTOOLS: a database to identify research gaps on vaccines, pharmaceuticals and diagnostics for the control of infectious diseases of animals.

BACKGROUND: The public and private sector in the EU spend around €800 million per year on animal health and welfare related research. An objective process to identify critical gaps in knowledge and available control tools should aid the prioritisation of research in order to speed up the development of new or improved diagnostics, vaccines and pharmaceuticals and reduce the burden of animal diseases. METHOD: Here, we describe the construction of a database based on expert consultation for 52 infectious diseases of animals. RESULTS: For each disease, an expert group produced a disease and product analysis document that formed the basis for gap analysis and prioritisation. The prioritisation model was based on a closed scoring system, employing identical weights for six evaluation criteria (disease knowledge; impact on animal health and welfare; impact on public health; impact on wider society; impact on trade; control tools). The diseases were classified into three groups: epizootic diseases, food-producing animal complexes or zoonotic diseases. DISCUSSION: The highly ranked diseases in the prioritisation model comprised mostly zoonotic and epizootic diseases with important gaps identified in vaccine development and pharmaceuticals, respectively. The most important outcome is the identification of key research needs by disease. The rankings and research needs by disease are provided on a public website ( www.discontools.eu ) which is currently being updated based on new expert consultations. CONCLUSION: As such, it can become a reference point for funders of research including the European Commission, member states, foundations, trusts along with private industry to prioritise research. This will deliver benefits in terms of animal health and welfare but also public health, societal benefits and a safe and secure food supply.

Decision making on helminths in cattle: diagnostics, economics and human behaviour.

Helminth infections of cattle affect productivity in all classes of stock, and are amongst the most important production-limiting diseases of grazing ruminants. Over the last decade, there has been a shift in focus in the diagnosis of these infections from merely detecting presence/absence of infection towards detecting its impact on production. This has been facilitated by studies observing consistent negative correlations between helminth diagnostic test results and measures of productivity. Veterinarians are increasingly challenged to consider the economic aspects of their work, and the use of these tests should now be integrated in economic evaluation frameworks for improved decision making. In this paper, we review recent insights in the farm-specific economic impact of helminth infections on dairy cattle farms as well as in farmer attitudes and behaviour regarding helminth control. Combining better economic impact assessments of helminth infections together with a deeper understanding of the non-economic factors that drive a farmer's animal health decisions should result in more effective control strategies and increased farmer satisfaction.

Non-invasive indicators associated with the milk yield response after anthelmintic treatment at calving in dairy cows.

BACKGROUND: Gastrointestinal nematodes are an important cause of reduced performance in cattle. Previous studies in Europe showed that after anthelmintic treatment an average gain in milk production of around 1 kg per day/cow can be expected. However, (1) these studies have mainly evaluated group-based anthelmintic treatments during the grazing season or at housing and (2) little is known about parameters affecting variations in the treatment response amongst cows. A better knowledge of such parameters could help to select animals that benefit most from treatment and thus lead to a more rational use of anthelmintics. Therefore, a randomized, non-blinded, controlled clinical trial was performed on 11 commercial dairy farms (477 animals) in Belgium, aiming (1) to study the effect of eprinomectin treatment at calving on milk production and (2) to investigate whether the milk yield response was related to non-invasive animal parameters such that these could be used to inform targeted selective treatment decisions. RESULTS: Analyses show that eprinomectin treatment around calving resulted in an average (± standard error) increase of 0.97 (±0.41) kg in daily milk yield that was followed up over 274 days on average. Milk yield responses were higher in multiparous compared to primiparous cows and in cows with a high (4(th) quartile) anti-O. ostertagi antibody level in a milk sample from the previous lactation. Nonetheless, high responses were also seen in animals with a low (1(st) quartile) anti-O. ostertagi antibody level. In addition, positive treatment responses were associated with higher faecal egg counts and a moderate body condition score at calving (2(nd) quartile). CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, this study provides novel insights into the production response after anthelmintic treatment at calving and factors which influence this. The data could be used to support the development of evidence-based targeted selective anthelmintic treatment strategies in dairy cattle.

A stochastic frontier approach to study the relationship between gastrointestinal nematode infections and technical efficiency of dairy farms.

The impact of gastrointestinal (GI) nematode infections in dairy farming has traditionally been assessed using partial productivity indicators. But such approaches ignore the impact of infection on the performance of the whole farm. In this study, efficiency analysis was used to study the association of the GI nematode Ostertagia ostertagi on the technical efficiency of dairy farms. Five years of accountancy data were linked to GI nematode infection data gained from a longitudinal parasitic monitoring campaign. The level of exposure to GI nematodes was based on bulk-tank milk ELISA tests, which measure the antibodies to O. ostertagi and was expressed as an optical density ratio (ODR). Two unbalanced data panels were created for the period 2006 to 2010. The first data panel contained 198 observations from the Belgian Farm Accountancy Data Network (Brussels, Belgium) and the second contained 622 observations from the Boerenbond Flemish farmers' union (Leuven, Belgium) accountancy system (Tiber Farm Accounting System). We used the stochastic frontier analysis approach and defined inefficiency effect models specified with the Cobb-Douglas and transcendental logarithmic (Translog) functional form. To assess the efficiency scores, milk production was considered as the main output variable. Six input variables were used: concentrates, roughage, pasture, number of dairy cows, animal health costs, and labor. The ODR of each individual farm served as an explanatory variable of inefficiency. An increase in the level of exposure to GI nematodes was associated with a decrease in technical efficiency. Exposure to GI nematodes constrains the productivity of pasture, health, and labor but does not cause inefficiency in the use of concentrates, roughage, and dairy cows. Lowering the level of infection in the interquartile range (0.271 ODR) was associated with an average milk production increase of 27, 19, and 9L/cow per year for Farm Accountancy Data Network farms and 63, 49, and 23L/cow per year for Tiber Farm Accounting System farms in the low- (0-90), medium- (90-95), and high- (95-99) efficiency score groups, respectively. The potential milk increase associated with reducing the level of infection was higher for highly efficient farms (6.7% of the total possible milk increase when becoming fully technically efficient) than for less efficient farms (3.8% of the total possible milk increase when becoming fully technically efficient).

Control of companion animal parasites and impact on One Health.

The last decades have witnessed an increase in the global population and movements of companion animals, contributing to changes in density and distribution of pet parasites. Control of companion animal parasites (CAPs) becomes increasingly relevant because of the intensifying human-animal bond. Parasites impact on the health of humans and their pets, but also of wildlife and the environment. We conducted a qualitative review on the current advancements, gaps and priorities for the monitoring and treatment of CAPs with a focus on securing public health. There is a need to raise awareness, coordinate global surveillance schemes and better quantify the impact of companion animal parasites on One Health.

Next-generation sequencing technologies for helminth diagnostics and surveillance in ruminants: shifting diagnostic barriers.

Helminth infections in grazing ruminants are a major issue for livestock farming globally, but are unavoidable in outdoor grazing systems and must be effectively managed to avoid deleterious effects to animal health, and productivity. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies are transforming our understanding of the genetic basis of anthelmintic resistance (AR) and epidemiological studies of ruminant gastrointestinal parasites. They also have the potential to not only help develop and validate molecular diagnostic tests but to be directly used in routine diagnostics integrating species-specific identification and AR into a single test. Here, we review how these developments have opened the pathway for the development of multi-AR and multispecies identification in a single test, with widespread implications for sustainable livestock farming for the future.

Quantifying the neglected: Initial estimation of the global burden and economic impact of human toxocariasis.

Toxocariasis is a parasitic zoonotic infection caused by Toxocara spp., ascarid nematodes of companion animals (dogs and cats) affecting people in both high-income and low/middle-income countries. Toxocariasis can manifest as several distinct syndromes. The most frequent, often termed common toxocariasis, is a self-limiting and mild febrile illness. Ocular and visceral larva migrans are severe disease manifestations affecting the eye and other internal organs, respectively, but their reported occurrence is rare. The vast majority of symptomatic cases are thought due to common toxocariasis, which has also been associated with cognitive impairment in children. Few studies to date have sought to quantity the health burden of toxocariasis in humans. In this study we provide a preliminary estimation using the Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY) approach. We estimate a total of 23,084 DALYs are lost annually in 28 selected countries due to common toxocariasis. Extrapolating based on a global average seroprevalence rate of 19%, we estimate 91,714 DALYs per year are lost across all countries due to toxocariasis, of which 40,912 are attributable to less severe forms, i.e. common toxocariasis, and 50,731 to cognitive impairment in children. Clinically diagnosed and reported ocular and visceral larva migrans represent a small proportion of estimated total health burden. We also found a positive correlation at national level between prevalence in cats or dogs and seroprevalence in humans, but no correlation between estimated soil contamination and seroprevalence in humans. Finally, we estimate the potential economic impact of toxocariasis in selected countries at 2.5 billion USD per annum, from costs of medical treatment and lost income. These preliminary estimates should serve as a call to action for further research and evidence-based measures to tackle toxocariasis.

To treat or not to treat: diagnostic thresholds in subclinical helminth infections of cattle.

Helminth infections of cattle place significant burdens on livestock production and farm economic efficiency. Heavy infections are relatively easy to detect and treat with anthelmintics. However, subclinical infections have major but often hidden impacts on animals, necessitating more refined diagnostics to detect them and ideally inform farmers about the likely impact of anthelmintic treatment on animal and herd performance. Here, we review recent advances in diagnosing three major cattle helminth infections - gastrointestinal nematodes (GINs), liver flukes, and lungworms - and the search for subclinical infection thresholds to guide treatment decisions. Combining refined diagnostic thresholds with farm-specific information on grazing systems and animal history enables farmers to tailor helminth treatments to specific epidemiological circumstances, thereby limiting anthelmintic resistance (AR) and boosting agricultural efficiency and food security.

Review and Evaluation of Ostertagia ostertagi Antibody ELISA for Application on Serum Samples in First Season Grazing Calves.

The O. ostertagi-Ab ELISA assay is widely used as a diagnostic tool for monitoring gastrointestinal (GI) nematodes using milk samples from adult dairy cows. This assay is potentially also useful to analyse serum samples from first-season grazing (FSG) calves, providing a more cost-effective and robust diagnostic technique than the current serum pepsinogen assay. However, a comprehensive evaluation of its use in serum samples from FSG calves has not yet been conducted. In this study, we first reviewed the available scientific literature in which the O. ostertagi-Ab ELISA was applied to serum samples from FSG calves. Then, a field study was conducted to compare results from the O. ostertagi-Ab ELISA assay with a serum pepsinogen assay on a set of 230 serum samples from 11 commercial dairy herds (seven in Belgium and four in Sweden). The literature review showed an increase in mean antibody levels, expressed as optical density ratio (ODR) values, from <0.4 (early grazing season) to values of 0.7-1.1 (late grazing season). Three out of five studies found a negative correlation between O. ostertagi antibody levels measured during the late grazing season and weight gain, while the other two studies found no correlation between the two variables. Our field studies showed a good correlation between O. ostertagi antibody levels and the results from the pepsinogen assay. Both indicators were negatively related to average daily weight gain in the Belgian herds, but not in the Swedish herds. Overall, the results suggest that the O. ostertagi-Ab ELISA test can be a useful tool in FSG calves and could replace the use of the serum pepsinogen assay at the end of the grazing season for general monitoring purposes.

Understanding the uptake of diagnostics for sustainable gastrointestinal nematode control by European dairy cattle farmers: a multi-country cross-sectional study.

To mitigate emerging anthelmintic resistance (AR) in cattle, sustainable gastrointestinal nematode control strategies should be adopted. A multi-centre study was set up to understand the factors affecting European dairy cattle farmers' adoption of diagnostics and to gauge for differences between regions. The data were collected through a multi-lingual survey by participating countries of the European Co-operation in Science and Technology (COST) action COMbatting Anthelmintic Resistance in ruminants (COMBAR). Four countries provided sufficient data to be included in the data analysis: Norway, Italy, Germany and Austria. Three models were estimated and validated through structural equation modelling. Norway, along with Germany and Austria (pooled dataset) showed similar trends that align with previous studies. AR risk perception had no influence on the adoption intention of diagnostics, a positive influence was found for attitude towards diagnostics and subjective norms (i.e., perceived opinion of others), and a negative influence of attitudes towards anthelminthics. Additionally, routine (i.e., perception of the current treatment) had an indirect effect on adoption intention through attitudes. Italy's data deviated from these findings, presenting a positive effect of the perceived severity of AR, and perceived behavioural control (i.e., perceived ability to perform a specific behaviour) on adoption intention of diagnostics. Finally, Norway's data set allowed for inclusion of a measurement of current behaviour in the model, identifying a direct positive effect of the perceived actual behaviour of other farmers on their own behaviour.

Title: Comprendre l'adoption des diagnostics pour le contrôle durable des nématodes gastro-intestinaux par les producteurs laitiers européens : une étude transversale multi-pays. Abstract: Pour atténuer la résistance émergente aux anthelminthiques (RA) chez les bovins, des stratégies durables de contrôle des nématodes gastro-intestinaux devraient être adoptées. Une étude multicentrique a été réalisée pour comprendre les facteurs affectant l'adoption des diagnostics par les éleveurs de bovins laitiers européens, et pour évaluer les différences entre les régions. Les données ont été recueillies au moyen d'une enquête multilingue menée par les pays participants à l'action de European Co-operation in Science and Technology (COST) COMbatting Anthelmintic Resistance in ruminants (COMBAR). Quatre pays ont collecté suffisamment de données pour être inclus dans l'analyse statistique : la Norvège, l'Italie, l'Allemagne et l'Autriche. Trois modèles ont été estimés et validés par modélisation d'équations structurelles. La Norvège, et d'autre part l'Allemagne et l'Autriche (données regroupées) ont montré des tendances similaires qui correspondent aux études précédentes. La perception de la RA n'avait aucune influence sur l'intention d'adoption des diagnostics, une influence positive a été trouvée pour l'attitude envers les diagnostics et les normes subjectives (c'est-à-dire l'opinion perçue des autres), et une influence négative des attitudes envers les anthelminthiques. De plus, la routine (c'est-à-dire la perception du traitement actuel) a eu un effet indirect sur l'intention d'adoption par le biais des attitudes. Les données de l'Italie s'écartaient des résultats précédents, présentant un effet positif de la gravité perçue du risque de la RA, et du contrôle comportemental perçu (c'est-à-dire la capacité perçue à adopter un comportement spécifique) sur l'intention d'adoption de diagnostic. Enfin, l'ensemble de données de la Norvège a permis d'inclure une mesure du comportement actuel dans le modèle, identifiant un effet positif direct du comportement réel perçu des autres agriculteurs sur son propre comportement.

Confounding factors affecting faecal egg count reduction as a measure of anthelmintic efficacy.

Increasing anthelmintic resistance (AR) in livestock has stimulated growing efforts to monitor anthelmintic effectiveness (AE) on livestock farms. On-farm assessment of AE relies on measuring the reduction in faecal egg count (FEC) following treatment; and if conducted rigorously, qualifies as a formal FEC reduction test (FECRT) for AR. Substantial research effort has been devoted to designing robust protocols for the FECRT and its statistical interpretation; however, a wide range of factors other than AR can affect FEC reduction on farms. These are not always possible to control, and can affect the outcome and repeatability of AE measurements and confound the on-farm classification of AR using FECRT. This review considers confounders of FEC reduction, focusing on gastrointestinal nematodes of ruminants, including host and parasite physiology and demography; pharmacokinetic variation between drugs, parasites and hosts; and technical performance. Drug formulation and delivery, host condition and diet, and seasonal variation in parasite species composition, can all affect AE and hence observed FEC reduction. Causes of variation in FEC reduction should be attenuated, but this is not always possible. Regular monitoring of AE can indicate a need to improve anthelmintic administration practices, and detect AR early in its progression. Careful interpretation of FEC reduction, however, taking into account possible confounders, is essential before attributing reduced FEC reduction to AR. Understanding of confounders of FEC reduction will complement advances in FECRT design and interpretation to provide measures of anthelmintic efficacy that are both rigorous and accessible.

Title: Facteurs de confusion affectant la réduction du nombre d'œufs fécaux comme mesure de l'efficacité anthelminthique. Abstract: L'augmentation de la résistance aux anthelminthiques (RA) chez le bétail a stimulé des efforts croissants pour mesurer l'efficacité des anthelminthiques (EA) dans les élevages. L'évaluation à la ferme de l'EA repose sur la mesure de la réduction du nombre d'œufs dans les selles (NOS) après le traitement ; si effectué rigoureusement, celui-ci est qualifié de test formel de réduction du NOS (TFRNOS) pour la RA. Des efforts de recherche substantiels ont été consacrés à la conception de protocoles robustes pour le TFRNOS et son interprétation statistique, mais un large éventail de facteurs autres que la RA peuvent affecter la réduction du NOS dans les exploitations. Ces facteurs ne sont pas toujours contrôlables et peuvent affecter le résultat et la répétabilité des mesures de l'EA et introduire de la confusion dans la classification à la ferme de la RA à l'aide de la TFRNOS. Cette revue examine les facteurs de confusion de la réduction du NOS, en se concentrant sur les nématodes gastro-intestinaux des ruminants, et considère la physiologie et la démographie de l'hôte et du parasite, la variation pharmacocinétique entre les médicaments, les parasites et les hôtes, et les performances techniques. La formulation et l'administration de médicaments, la condition et le régime alimentaire de l'hôte, ainsi que les variations saisonnières de la composition des espèces de parasites, peuvent tous affecter l'EA et donc la réduction du NOS observé. Les causes de variation de la réduction du NOS doivent être atténuées, mais cela n'est pas toujours possible. Une surveillance régulière de l'EA peut indiquer la nécessité d'améliorer les pratiques d'administration des anthelminthiques et de détecter la RA au début de sa progression. Une interprétation prudente de la réduction du NOS, cependant, en tenant compte des facteurs de confusion possibles, est essentielle avant d'attribuer la réduction du NOS à la RA. La compréhension des facteurs de confusion d'une moindre réduction du NOS complétera les progrès sur la conception et l'interprétation du TFRNOS, pour fournir des mesures de l'efficacité des anthelminthiques à la fois rigoureuses et accessibles.

Technology Readiness Levels for vaccine and drug development in animal health: From discovery to life cycle management.

Public research and innovation initiatives in animal health aim to deliver key knowledge, services and products that improve the control of animal infectious diseases and animal welfare to deliver on global challenges including public health threats, environmental concerns and food security. The Technology Readiness Level (TRL) is a popular innovation policy instrument to monitor the maturity of upcoming new technologies in publicly funded research projects. However, while general definition of the 9 levels on the TRL-scale enable uniform discussions of technical maturity across different types of technology, these definitions are very generic which hampers concrete interpretation and application. Here, we aligned innovation pipeline stages as used in the animal health industry for the development of new vaccines or drugs with the TRL scale, resulting in TRL for animal health (TRLAH). This more bespoke scale can help to rationally allocate funding for animal health research from basic to applied research, map innovation processes, monitor progress and develop realistic progress expectations across the time span of a research and innovation project. The TRLAH thus become an interesting instrument to enhance the translation of public research results into industrial and societal innovation and foster public-private partnerships in animal health.

Disease control tools to secure animal and public health in a densely populated world.

Animal health is a prerequisite for global health, economic development, food security, food quality, and poverty reduction, while mitigating against climate change and biodiversity loss. We did a qualitative review of 53 infectious diseases in terrestrial animals with data from DISCONTOOLS, a specialist database and prioritisation model focusing on research gaps for improving infectious disease control in animals. Many diseases do not have any appropriate control tools, but the prioritisation model suggests that we should focus international efforts on Nipah virus infection, African swine fever, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, peste des petits ruminants, sheeppox and goatpox, avian influenza, Rift Valley fever, foot and mouth disease, and bovine tuberculosis, for the greatest impact on the UN's Sustainable Development Goals. Easy to use and accurate diagnostics are available for many animal diseases. However, there is an urgent need for the development of stable and durable diagnostics that can differentiate infected animals from vaccinated animals, to exploit rapid technological advances, and to make diagnostics widely available and affordable. Veterinary vaccines are important for dealing with endemic, new, and emerging diseases. However, fundamental research is needed to improve the convenience of use and duration of immunity, and to establish performant marker vaccines. The largest gap in animal pharmaceuticals is the threat of pathogens developing resistance to available drugs, in particular for bacterial and parasitic (protozoal, helminth, and arthropod) pathogens. We propose and discuss five research priorities for animal health that will help to deliver a sustainable and healthy planet: vaccinology, antimicrobial resistance, climate mitigation and adaptation, digital health, and epidemic preparedness.

Use of agro-industrial by-products containing tannins for the integrated control of gastrointestinal nematodes in ruminants.

Previous studies have illustrated that different bioactive legume fodders containing condensed tannins might represent one of the options for integrated sustainable control of gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) in ruminants, which may help address the worldwide development of resistance to synthetic anthelmintics. More recently, impetus has been given to assess the potential antiparasitic activity of less conventional resources, represented by different agro-industrial by-products (AIBPs). This review presents in vitro and in vivo results obtained with a range of tannin-containing AIBPs of various geographical and botanical origins, namely AIBP of nuts, temperate and tropical barks, carob, coffee and cocoa. They tend to confirm the "proof of concept" for their antiparasitic effects and also for other aspects of ruminant production in an agro-ecological context. Socio-economic aspects of the exploitation of such non-conventional resources are also discussed as potential models of the circular economy, by using waste. The different modes of use of these resources are presented in this review, as well as strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) analyses to illustrate the advantages and limitations of on-farm use.

TITLE: Utilisation de sous-produits agro-industriels contenant des tanins pour le contrôle intégré des nématodes gastro-intestinaux chez les ruminants. ABSTRACT: Plusieurs études antérieures ont illustré le fait que des légumineuses bioactives contenant des tannins condensés peuvent représenter une des alternatives à intégrer avec d'autres options pour une maitrise durable des nématodes gastro-intestinaux en réponse au développement constant et à l'expansion continue à l'échelle mondiale des résistances aux anthelminthiques de synthèse. Des recherches plus récentes se sont intéressées au potentiel d'application de ressources moins conventionnelles que représentent des coproduits agroindustriels (CPAI). Cette revue vise à présenter des résultats in vitro et in vivo obtenus avec une gamme de CPAI d'origines géographiques et botaniques diversifiées (coproduits de l'industrie des noix, du bois (en régions tempérées et tropicales), du caroubier, du café et du cacao). Ces résultats ont confirmé la preuve de concept pour les effets antiparasitaires, et aussi pour d'autres volets de la production des ruminants dans un contexte agro écologique de l'élevage. Par ailleurs, les aspects socio-économiques d'exploitation de ces ressources, considérées jusqu'à présent comme des déchets, dans un modèle de circuits courts sont aussi évoqués. Les avantages et inconvénients des différentes modalités d'exploitation des CPAI sont aussi discutés dans le cadre d'une analyse SWOT.

Monitoring drug efficacy against gastrointestinal nematodes when faecal egg counts are low: do the analytic sensitivity and the formula matter?

The faecal egg count reduction test (FECR) is the recommended technique to monitor anthelmintic drug efficacy in livestock. However, results are often inconclusive due to the low analytic sensitivity of the diagnostic technique or the conflict in results from FECR formulae. A novel experimental set-up was, therefore, used to compare the impact of analytic sensitivity and formulae on FECR results. Four McMaster techniques (analytic sensitivities 50, 33.3, 15 and 10) and a FLOTAC technique (analytic sensitivity ~ 1) were used on faecal samples of 30 calves with a FEC of less than 200 eggs per gram. True drug efficacies of 70%, 80% and 90% were experimentally mimicked by comparing FEC before and after dilution (3:10, 2:10 and 1:10, respectively). The FECR was summarized using group (FECR(1)) and individual (FECR(2)) based formulae. There was a significant increase in precision of FECR when the analytic sensitivity increased (p < 0.0001). The precision also depended on the formula used, FECR(1) (p < 0.05) resulting in more precise FECR compared to FECR(2). The accuracy of the FECR differed marginally between the two formulae (p = 0.06), FECR(1) being more accurate. In conclusion, the present study describes a novel methodology to compare techniques for the precision and the accuracy of their FECR results. The results underscored that techniques with high analytic sensitivity will improve the interpretation of FECR in animal populations where baseline FEC are low. They also point out that the precision of individual-based formulae is affected by the analytic sensitivity.