The impact and recovery of asteroid 2008 TC(3).

In the absence of a firm link between individual meteorites and their asteroidal parent bodies, asteroids are typically characterized only by their light reflection properties, and grouped accordingly into classes. On 6 October 2008, a small asteroid was discovered with a flat reflectance spectrum in the 554-995 nm wavelength range, and designated 2008 TC(3) (refs 4-6). It subsequently hit the Earth. Because it exploded at 37 km altitude, no macroscopic fragments were expected to survive. Here we report that a dedicated search along the approach trajectory recovered 47 meteorites, fragments of a single body named Almahata Sitta, with a total mass of 3.95 kg. Analysis of one of these meteorites shows it to be an achondrite, a polymict ureilite, anomalous in its class: ultra-fine-grained and porous, with large carbonaceous grains. The combined asteroid and meteorite reflectance spectra identify the asteroid as F class, now firmly linked to dark carbon-rich anomalous ureilites, a material so fragile it was not previously represented in meteorite collections.

Introduction to the Special Issue: Exploration of the Activity of Asteroid (101955) Bennu.

Near-Earth asteroid (101955) Bennu is an active asteroid experiencing mass loss. The activity manifests itself in the form of ejection events emitting up to hundreds of millimeter- to centimeter-scale particles. The Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security-Regolith Explorer spacecraft monitored particle activity for a 10-month period that included Bennu's perihelion and aphelion. Novel and classical methods were utilized to detect the particles and characterize their orbital and physical properties. Roughly 30% of the observed particle mass escaped to heliocentric orbit. A majority of particles fell back onto the surface of Bennu after ejection, with the longest-lived particle surviving for 6 days on a temporary orbit. Particle ejection events appear to preferentially take place in the afternoon and evening and from low latitudes, although they can occur at any time or latitude. The reaccumulation of material is biased toward low latitudes resulting in the possible in-fill of craters and growth of Bennu's equatorial bulge. Of the potential mechanisms behind this activity that were investigated in focused studies, meteoroid impacts, thermal fracturing, and ricochet-but not water ice sublimation-were found to be consistent with observations. While phyllosilicate dehydration was not investigated with a focused study, it remains a possible mechanism. These mechanisms are not unique to Bennu, suggesting that many near-Earth asteroids may exhibit activity that has gone undetected thus far. Spacecraft missions with wide-field imagers are encouraged to further characterize this phenomenon.

Thermal Fatigue as a Driving Mechanism for Activity on Asteroid Bennu.

Many boulders on (101955) Bennu, a near-Earth rubble pile asteroid, show signs of in situ disaggregation and exfoliation, indicating that thermal fatigue plays an important role in its landscape evolution. Observations of particle ejections from its surface also show it to be an active asteroid, though the driving mechanism of these events is yet to be determined. Exfoliation has been shown to mobilize disaggregated particles in terrestrial environments, suggesting that it may be capable of ejecting material from Bennu's surface. We investigate the nature of thermal fatigue on the asteroid, and the efficacy of fatigue-driven exfoliation as a mechanism for generating asteroid activity, by performing finite element modeling of stress fields induced in boulders from diurnal cycling. We develop a model to predict the spacing of exfoliation fractures and the number and speed of particles that may be ejected during exfoliation events. We find that crack spacing ranges from ~1 mm to 10 cm and disaggregated particles have ejection speeds up to ~2 m/s. Exfoliation events are most likely to occur in the late afternoon. These predictions are consistent with observed ejection events at Bennu and indicate that thermal fatigue is a viable mechanism for driving asteroid activity. Crack propagation rates and ejection speeds are greatest at perihelion when the diurnal temperature variation is largest, suggesting that events should be more energetic and more frequent when closer to the Sun. Annual thermal stresses that arise in large boulders may influence the spacing of exfoliation cracks or frequency of ejection events.

Initial Orbit Determination and Event Reconstruction From Estimation of Particle Trajectories About (101955) Bennu.

The OSIRIS-REx mission has observed multiple instances of particles being ejected from the surface of near-Earth asteroid (101955) Bennu. The ability to quickly identify the particle trajectories and origins is necessary following a particle ejection event. Using proven initial orbit determination techniques, we can rapidly estimate particle trajectories and ejection locations. We present current results pertaining to the identification of particle tracks, an evaluation of the estimated orbits and the excess velocity necessary to induce the particle ejection from the surface, and the uncertainty quantification of the ejection location. We estimate energies per particle ranging from 0.03 to 11.03 mJ for the largest analyzed events and velocities ranging from 5 to 90 cm/s, though we exclude the highest-velocity particles in this technique. We estimate ejection times for eight events and constrain six of the analyzed ejection events to have occurred between about 16:30 and 19:00 local solar time, with the largest events occurring between 16:30 and 18:05.

Particle Ejection Contributions to the Rotational Acceleration and Orbit Evolution of Asteroid (101955) Bennu.

This paper explores the implications of the observed Bennu particle ejection events for that asteroid's spin rate and orbit evolution, which could complicate interpretation of the Yarkovsky-O'Keefe-Radzievskii-Paddack (YORP) and Yarkovsky effects on this body's spin rate and orbital evolution. Based on current estimates of particle ejection rates, we find that the overall contribution to Bennu's spin and orbital drift is small or negligible as compared to the Yarkovsky and YORP effects. However, if there is a large unseen component of smaller mass ejections or a strong directionality in the ejection events, it could constitute a significant contribution that could mask the overall YORP effect. This means that the YORP effect may be stronger than currently assumed. The analysis is generalized so that the particle ejection effect can be assessed for other bodies that may be subject to similar mass loss events. Further, our model can be modified to address different potential mechanisms of particle ejection, which are a topic of ongoing study.

Heterogeneous mass distribution of the rubble-pile asteroid (101955) Bennu.

The gravity field of a small body provides insight into its internal mass distribution. We used two approaches to measure the gravity field of the rubble-pile asteroid (101955) Bennu: (i) tracking and modeling the spacecraft in orbit about the asteroid and (ii) tracking and modeling pebble-sized particles naturally ejected from Bennu's surface into sustained orbits. These approaches yield statistically consistent results up to degree and order 3, with the particle-based field being statistically significant up to degree and order 9. Comparisons with a constant-density shape model show that Bennu has a heterogeneous mass distribution. These deviations can be modeled with lower densities at Bennu's equatorial bulge and center. The lower-density equator is consistent with recent migration and redistribution of material. The lower-density center is consistent with a past period of rapid rotation, either from a previous Yarkovsky-O'Keefe-Radzievskii-Paddack cycle or arising during Bennu's accretion following the disruption of its parent body.

The operational environment and rotational acceleration of asteroid (101955) Bennu from OSIRIS-REx observations.

During its approach to asteroid (101955) Bennu, NASA's Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security-Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS-REx) spacecraft surveyed Bennu's immediate environment, photometric properties, and rotation state. Discovery of a dusty environment, a natural satellite, or unexpected asteroid characteristics would have had consequences for the mission's safety and observation strategy. Here we show that spacecraft observations during this period were highly sensitive to satellites (sub-meter scale) but reveal none, although later navigational images indicate that further investigation is needed. We constrain average dust production in September 2018 from Bennu's surface to an upper limit of 150 g s-1 averaged over 34 min. Bennu's disk-integrated photometric phase function validates measurements from the pre-encounter astronomical campaign. We demonstrate that Bennu's rotation rate is accelerating continuously at 3.63 ± 0.52 × 10-6 degrees day-2, likely due to the Yarkovsky-O'Keefe-Radzievskii-Paddack (YORP) effect, with evolutionary implications.

The dynamic geophysical environment of (101955) Bennu based on OSIRIS-REx measurements.

The top-shape morphology of asteroid (101955) Bennu is commonly found among fast-spinning asteroids and binary asteroid primaries, and might have contributed significantly to binary asteroid formation. Yet a detailed geophysical analysis of this morphology for a fast-spinning asteroid has not been possible prior to the Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security-Regolith Explorer (OSIRIS-REx) mission. Combining the measured Bennu mass and shape obtained during the Preliminary Survey phase of OSIRIS-REx, we find a significant transition in Bennu's surface slopes within its rotational Roche lobe, defined as the region where material is energetically trapped to the surface. As the intersection of the rotational Roche lobe with Bennu's surface has been most recently migrating towards its equator (given Bennu's increasing spin rate), we infer that Bennu's surface slopes have been changing across its surface within the last million years. We also find evidence for substantial density heterogeneity within this body, suggesting that its interior has a distribution of voids and boulders. The presence of such heterogeneity and Bennu's top-shape is consistent with spin-induced failure at some point in its past, although the manner of its failure cannot be determined yet. Future measurements by the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft will give additional insights and may resolve questions regarding the formation and evolution of Bennu's top-shape morphology and its link to the formation of binary asteroids.

Episodes of particle ejection from the surface of the active asteroid (101955) Bennu.

Active asteroids are those that show evidence of ongoing mass loss. We report repeated instances of particle ejection from the surface of (101955) Bennu, demonstrating that it is an active asteroid. The ejection events were imaged by the OSIRIS-REx (Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, and Security-Regolith Explorer) spacecraft. For the three largest observed events, we estimated the ejected particle velocities and sizes, event times, source regions, and energies. We also determined the trajectories and photometric properties of several gravitationally bound particles that orbited temporarily in the Bennu environment. We consider multiple hypotheses for the mechanisms that lead to particle ejection for the largest events, including rotational disruption, electrostatic lofting, ice sublimation, phyllosilicate dehydration, meteoroid impacts, thermal stress fracturing, and secondary impacts.

Asteroid 1950 DA's encounter with Earth in 2880: physical limits of collision probability prediction.

Integration of the orbit of asteroid (29075) 1950 DA, which is based on radar and optical measurements spanning 51 years, reveals a 20-minute interval in March 2880 when there could be a nonnegligible probability of the 1-kilometer object colliding with Earth. Trajectory knowledge remains accurate until then because of extensive astrometric data, an inclined orbit geometry that reduces in-plane perturbations, and an orbit uncertainty space modulated by gravitational resonance. The approach distance uncertainty in 2880 is determined primarily by uncertainty in the accelerations arising from thermal re-radiation of solar energy absorbed by the asteroid. Those accelerations depend on the spin axis, composition, and surface properties of the asteroid, so that refining the collision probability may require direct inspection by a spacecraft.

The landing of the NEAR-Shoemaker spacecraft on asteroid 433 Eros.

The NEAR-Shoemaker spacecraft was designed to provide a comprehensive characterization of the S-type asteroid 433 Eros (refs 1,2,3), an irregularly shaped body with approximate dimensions of 34 x 13 x 13 km. Following the completion of its year-long investigation, the mission was terminated with a controlled descent to its surface, in order to provide extremely high resolution images. Here we report the results of the descent on 12 February 2001, during which 70 images were obtained. The landing area is marked by a paucity of small craters and an abundance of 'ejecta blocks'. The properties and distribution of ejecta blocks are discussed in a companion paper. The last sequence of images reveals a transition from the blocky surface to a smooth area, which we interpret as a 'pond'. Properties of the 'ponds' are discussed in a second companion paper. The closest image, from an altitude of 129 m, shows the interior of a 100-m-diameter crater at 1-cm resolution.