Coping with ethnic-racial discrimination: Protective-reactive effects of shift-and-persist coping on internalizing symptoms among Black American adolescents.

Ethnic-racial discrimination has pervasive negative effects on Black youth's mental health; therefore, it is crucial to identify factors that provide resilience against discrimination. Two promising factors to help youth cope are ethnic-racial identity (how one feels about their ethnicity/race) and shift-and-persist coping (reappraising and accepting an uncontrollable stressor while remaining optimistic about the future). While there is existing scholarship on ethnic-racial identity among Black youth, this work has not yet assessed the impacts of shift-and-persist in this population. Using a sample of 155 Black youth (ages 13-17), the current study examined the interplay between discrimination, ethnic-racial identity, shift-and-persist coping, and internalizing symptoms. Symptoms of depression and anxiety were positively associated with discrimination and negatively associated with shift-and-persist. Significant interactions between discrimination and shift-and-persist predicting both depressive and anxiety symptoms revealed significant negative associations between shift-and-persist and internalizing symptoms at low and average, but not high discrimination levels. Effects are, thus, protective-reactive; the protective effects of shift-and-persist are not significant for youth facing high levels of discrimination. Ethnic-racial identity, surprisingly, was not significantly associated with either depressive or anxiety symptoms, nor did it interact with shift-and-persist as it has in studies of Latinx youth. By understanding the protective benefits of shift-and-persist and ethnic-racial identity in Black youth, during a pivotal period for mental health, we can provide this growing population with tools to lessen the maladaptive outcomes associated with discrimination.

Measurement invariance of the LGBT People of Color Microaggressions Scale among LGBTQ+ youth.

The LGBT People of Color Microaggressions Scale (LGBT-PCMS) is a widely used measure of intersectional microaggression experiences among sexual and gender minority people of color. Although it is widely used-and increasingly used in adolescent and young adult samples-it is unknown whether the LGBT-PCMS demonstrates similar measurement properties across subgroups of sexual and gender minority youth of color (SGMYOC). Among 4142 SGMYOC (ages 13-17) we found evidence for either partial or full scalar invariance (item loadings and intercepts were generally equal) across sexual orientation, race-ethnicity, and gender identity groups for all three subscales. Specific patterns of invariance and noninvariance across groups, as well as implications for the use of the LGBT-PCMS and its subscales among SGMYOC are discussed.

Parental ethnic-racial socializations messages direct and indirect associations with shift-and-persist coping among minoritized American adolescents.

OBJECTIVES: The current cross-sectional study examined whether parental cultural socialization, preparation for bias messages, and adolescents' ethnic-racial identity (ERI) were associated with shift-and-persist coping strategy characterized by reappraising and accepting uncontrollable stressors (e.g., discrimination, poverty) while maintaining purpose and a positive future orientation. METHOD: Participants were 367 diverse ethnically/racially minoritized (42.2% Black, 25.9% Latinx, 16.1% Asian/Asian American, 12.5% multiracial, 3.3% from other groups) adolescents (Mage = 15.85, SD = 1.17, 68.9% girls). Structural equation models examined the direct effects of parental cultural socialization and preparation for bias messages on youth's ERI and shift-and-persist, as well as the indirect effects of socialization messages on shift-and-persist. RESULTS: Preparation for bias and cultural socialization were directly related to a stronger ERI for adolescents, but only cultural socialization was directly associated with greater shift-and-persist. Stronger ERI was associated with greater shift-and-persist, and both cultural socialization and preparation for bias were indirectly associated with greater shift-and-persist. CONCLUSIONS: Frequent parental preparation for bias may be indirectly associated with minoritized adolescent's shift-and-persist coping, whereas cultural socialization impacts youth's shift-and-persisting both directly and indirectly. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

It's how I was raised: How ethnic-racial socialization patterns influence antiracism actions in minoritized emerging adults.

OBJECTIVES: Research highlights the benefits of critical action on individual and community well-being; however, more needs to be understood about the ways ethnic-racial socialization (ERS) influences emerging adults' participation in antiracism actions. METHOD: The present study examined patterns of parental ERS messages received by a sample of 668 racially and ethnically minoritized emerging adult college students (Mage = 18.76, SD = 1.23; female = 81.8%), and their associations with the emerging adults' demographic characteristics and three forms of antiracism actions. RESULTS: A latent profile analysis revealed a five-profile solution and showed variability in patterns of parental cultural socialization and preparation for bias messages. Participants in profiles reflecting far higher than average frequencies of both messages (high frequency) and those who received mean preparation for bias and above-average cultural socialization (culturally focused) tended to engage most frequently across all forms of antiracism. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest the importance of parental ERS messages for fostering engagement in antiracism actions among diverse college students. Results are informative for those who work with minoritized emerging adults navigating racist contexts. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Critical consciousness and anti-racist action as rooted in family processes.

Racially ethnically marginalized communities in the United States are exposed to structural and interpersonal forms of racism that have harmful effects on their health, wealth, education, and employment (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Racism and Health. https://www.cdc.gov/minorityhealth/racism-disparities/index.html, 2021). Although a plethora of research exists outlining these harmful effects, research examining how youth from diverse backgrounds effectively combat racism is lacking. Emerging research demonstrates that families may play a key role in the development of critical consciousness and participation in anti-racist actions (Bañales et al., Journal of Social Issues, 2021, 77, 964; Blanco Martinez et al., American Journal of Community Psychology, 2022, 70, 278; Lozada et al., Journal of Black Psychology, 2017, 43, 493). Yet, many key family processes have not been examined in relation to youth development of anti-racist practices. The current study included a sample of 327 racially ethnically diverse emerging adults (Mage = 18.80, SD = 1.28, range = 18-25), and explored the association between ethnic-racial socialization (cultural socialization, preparation for bias) and youth critical consciousness (reflection, motivation, action) and anti-racist (interpersonal, communal, political change) actions, and how familism values impact these associations. Results found that ethnic-racial socialization was positively associated with all aspects of critical consciousness and anti-racist actions. Results also found that familism significantly interacted with ethnic-racial socialization to predict some aspects of critical consciousness and anti-racist actions, but not others. Implications of the findings and future research directions are discussed.

Mexican-Origin Children's Trajectories of Ethnic-Racial Pride from Childhood through Emerging Adulthood: Associations with Mothers and Fathers' Trajectories.

Ethnic-racial pride (positive feelings about one's ethnic-racial group) is critical to healthy identity development across the lifespan. Research on ethnic-racial pride development among Latinx populations has focused exclusively on youth, without regard to pride development amongst parents and relations between pride within family units. Using multivariate Latent Growth Curve Modelling among 674 Mexican-origin youth and their parents (673 mothers; 437 fathers), the trajectory of youth's pride from 5th grade through emerging adulthood (14 years/12 waves of data) as well as relations with parental pride trajectories were examined. Respondents' pride generally decreased from waves 1 to 7 (~age 11-17 in youth) and increased after wave 7. Youth's and mothers' trajectories were unrelated, but complex associations emerged between youth's and fathers' trajectories. This study supports the dynamic nature of ethnic-racial pride across distinct life stages and underscores the complex interplay of youth and parental pride trajectories, emphasizing the pivotal role parents may play in co-shaping identity development alongside their children.

Longitudinal links between maternal cultural socialization, peer ethnic-racial discrimination, and ethnic-racial pride in Mexican American youth.

This paper used cross-lagged panel models to test the longitudinal interplay between maternal cultural socialization, peer ethnic-racial discrimination, and ethnic-racial pride across 5th to 11th grade among Mexican American youth (N = 674, Mage  = 10.86; 72% born in the United States; 50% girls; Wave 1 collected 2006-2008). Maternal cultural socialization predicted increases in subsequent youth ethnic-racial pride, and youth ethnic-racial pride prompted greater maternal cultural socialization. However, peer ethnic-racial discrimination was associated with subsequent decreases in ethnic-racial pride. The magnitude of these associations was consistent across 5th to 11th grades suggesting that maternal cultural socialization messages are necessary to maintain ethnic-racial pride across adolescence, thus families must continually support the development of ethnic-racial pride in their youth to counter the effects of discrimination.

Ethnic-racial identity and ethnic-racial socialization competency: How minoritized parents "walk the talk".

OBJECTIVES: Ethnic-racial identity (ERI) has important implications for individual psychosocial functioning as well as familial processes. For example, parents' ERI can shape children's developmental contexts through ethnic-racial socialization (ERS). Yet, existing research has tended to focus on the content or frequency of socialization messages themselves rather than on internal factors like socialization competence. Such competence, as reflected through confidence, skills, and stress, represents critical dimensions that permeate the socialization process and can impact the delivery of messages. The present study examines whether parents' ERI (i.e., private regard, centrality, exploration) is related to perceptions of their socialization competence. METHOD: Data from 203 Black, 194 Asian American, and 188 Latinx parents (N = 585, Mage = 44.46 years, SD = 9.14, 59.70% mothers) of adolescents between the ages of 10-18 were collected via Qualtrics panels. RESULTS: Across all parents, private regard, centrality, and ethnic-racial exploration were positively associated with perceived confidence and skills in engaging in ERS. Regard was additionally associated with lower socialization stress. CONCLUSIONS: The results point to consistent benefits of ERI in helping parents navigate ERS, furthering the understanding of ERI's developmental implications through parents' comfort with and ability to "walk the talk" with their children. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Gender differences in perceived racism threat and activism during the Black Lives Matter social justice movement for Black young adults.

A longitudinal study involving 455 Black young adults living in Canada investigated whether gender and autonomous motivation influenced the relationship between perceived racism threat and Black Lives Matter (BLM) activism, and whether BLM activism influenced life satisfaction over time. A moderated mediation analysis using PROCESS Macro Model 58 tested the indirect effect of autonomous motivation on the relationship between perceived racism threat and BLM activism varying by gender. Multiple linear regression assessed how well BLM activism predicted life satisfaction. Black women perceived greater racism threat than Black men related to increases in BLM activism via the influence of autonomous motivation. BLM activism had a positive influence on life satisfaction over time, regardless of gender. This research suggests Black young women are playing pivotal roles in the BLM movement and helps us understand how motivation may be influencing involvement and well-being in social justice issues.

Shift-&-Persist and discrimination predicting depression across the life course: An accelerated longitudinal design using MIDUSI-III.

Life course theorists posit that sensitive periods exist during life span development where risk and protective factors may be particularly predictive of psychological outcomes relative to other periods in life. While there have been between-cohort studies trying to examine differences in discrimination and depressive symptoms, these studies have not been designed to identify these sensitive periods, which are best modeled by examining intra-individual change across time. To identify sensitive periods where discrimination and shift-&-persist (S&P) - a coping strategy that may protect against the negative impact of discrimination - are most strongly predictive of depressive symptoms, we employed latent growth curve modeling using an accelerated longitudinal design to track intra-individual change in depressive symptoms from ages 20-69. Participants were 3,685 adults measured at three time points ~10 years apart from the Midlife in the United States study (Mage = 37.93, SD = 6.948 at Wave I). Results identified two sensitive periods in development where high levels of S&P interacted with discrimination to protect against depressive symptoms; during the 30s and a lagged effect where 40's S&P protected against depressive symptoms when participants were in their 50s. Implications for the life course study of discrimination, coping, and depression are discussed.

Examining the promotive versus the protective impact of culturally informed shift-&-persist coping in the context of discrimination, anxiety, and health behaviors.

This study aims to better understand how racially/ethnically minoritized youth exhibit adaptive psychological functioning (less anxiety) and health behaviors (better sleep and less binge drinking) in the context of discrimination, ethnic-racial identity and coping. Among 364 minoritized emerging adults (Mage = 18.79, 85.2% female), we utilized higher-order factor analysis to examine how culturally informed shift-&-persist (S&P), a higher-order construct explaining associations between coping factors (shift, persist, spiritually based coping, civic engagement), and ethnic-racial identity were related to anxiety, binge drinking, and sleep in the context of discrimination. Culturally informed S&P promoted better sleep and less anxiety controlling for discrimination. No significant effects were observed for binge drinking and no moderated effects were observed across outcomes. The harmful effect of discrimination on sleep was intensified for those with stronger ethnic-racial identities. The promotive and potentially protective effects of culturally informed S&P coping differs across mental health and health behavior outcomes.

A person-centered analysis of ethnic-racial socialization patterns and their identity correlates in multiracial college students.

OBJECTIVES: Little is understood about how Multiracial individuals are socialized around race and ethnicity, and how these socialization messages are related to ethnic-racial identity development. METHOD: This study utilizes a person-centered framework with a diverse sample of 286 Multiracial college students to examine the patterns of ethnic-racial socialization messages individuals received from their primary caregiver. RESULTS: A latent profile analysis of caregivers' socialization messages produced a four-profile solution: Typical Messages (socialization messages with average frequency), Minority Messages (frequent cultural socialization and preparation for bias geared toward minority group membership), High Mistrust (frequent promotion of mistrust messages), and Low Frequency (all socialization messages at low frequency). Overall, profile differences were evident with respect to ethnic-racial identity endorsement, where participants in the Minority Messages profile endorsed the greatest levels of ethnic/racial exploration. In addition, individuals in the Minority Messages profile also endorsed higher levels of ethnic/racial identity resolution and affirmation than the High Mistrust and Low Frequency Messages profile. Individuals in the High Mistrust profile endorsed greater levels of identity conflict than the Minority Messages profile. CONCLUSIONS: The current study provides evidence that the pattern of socialization messages Multiracial participants received growing up impact their ethnic-racial identity endorsement. Results highlight the need for continued quantitative and person-centered work when studying socialization and identity in Multiracials. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Culturally informed shift-&-persist: A higher-order factor model and prospective associations with discrimination and depressive symptoms.

OBJECTIVES: Based on the conceptual overlap between shift-&-persist (S&P) and culturally based strategies (critical civic engagement [CCE] and spiritually based coping), this study tests whether associations between these three previously disparate strategies are attributable to the existence of a higher-order coping construct: culturally informed S&P. METHODS: Among 364 diverse minoritized youth (Mage = 18.79, 85.2% female), we tested for the existence of this higher-order factor through confirmatory factor analysis. RESULTS: We found theoretical and empirical support for the existence of a higher-order factor structure and for our higher-order factor-culturally informed S&P. Culturally informed S&P promotes fewer depressive symptoms as a main effect in addition to completely protecting against the negative impact of discrimination on depressive symptoms when culturally informed S&P is high. CONCLUSIONS: The current study illustrates relations between three previously distinct coping strategies through their association with culturally informed S&P. Results highlight culturally informed S&P's promotive and protective effects in the face of ethnic-racial discrimination. Implications for subsequent study of culturally based coping are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Differentiating Pathways between Ethnic-Racial Identity and Critical Consciousness.

Critical consciousness is one way in which minoritized youth can resist oppression and move towards sociopolitical change, but little is known about how it evolves alongside developmentally-relevant assets such as ethnic-racial identity. Among 367 ethnically-racially diverse youth (Mage = 15.85, 68.9% female, 85% U.S-born), links between multiple identity constructs (oppressed minority identity, centrality, public regard) and critical consciousness (reflection, motivation, action) were examined using structural equation modeling. Oppressed minority ideology and centrality were associated with more reflection, more motivation, but less critical action. In contrast, public regard was associated with less reflection, less motivation, but more action. The results suggest that different identity processes should be cultivated to help promote these largely independent dimensions of critical consciousness. Further implications of the findings and ideas for future research are discussed.

Coping and Culture: The Protective Effects of Shift-&-Persist and Ethnic-Racial Identity on Depressive Symptoms in Latinx Youth.

Shift-&-persist is a coping strategy that has been shown to lead to positive health outcomes in low-SES youth but has not yet been examined with respect to psychological health. This study tests whether the shift-&-persist coping strategy works in tandem with ethnic-racial identity to protect against depressive symptoms in the face of two uncontrollable stressors: economic hardship and peer discrimination. In a sample of 175 Latinx youth (51.4% female; Mage = 12.9), shift-&-persist buffered the positive relation between economic hardship and depressive symptoms. In terms of peer discrimination, among youth who reported little use of shift and persist, discrimination was related to higher depressive symptoms, whereas youth who reported higher amounts of shift and persist (at and above the mean) were protected and did not evidence this association. However, among youth with high ethnic-racial identity, shift-&-persist failed to protect against the deleterious association between peer discrimination and depressive symptoms. These findings suggest that shift-&-persist is protective for Latinx youth, although the context in which it is protective changes based on the racialized/non-racialized nature of the stressor.

When Discrimination Hurts: The Longitudinal Impact of Increases in Peer Discrimination on Anxiety and Depressive Symptoms in Mexican-origin Youth.

Life course models of the impact of discrimination on health and mental health outcomes posit that the pernicious effects of discrimination may not be immediate, but instead may become apparent at later stages in development. This study tests whether peer discrimination changes at particular transition points (i.e., transition to middle and high school) predict subsequent internalizing symptoms in Mexican-origin youth. In a sample of 674 Mexican-origin youth (50% female), this study used a latent change score framework to model changes in peer discrimination across time and to test whether changes in peer discrimination at 7th and 9th grades predicted greater depressive and anxiety symptoms in 12th grade controlling for 5th grade symptoms. Irrespective of longitudinal changes, greater peer discrimination in 5th grade predicted greater depressive and anxiety symptoms in 12th grade. Further, significant increases in peer discrimination from 7th to 8th grade and in 9th to 10th grade uniquely predicted greater anxiety symptoms in 12th grade. These findings suggest that longitudinal research on peer discrimination needs to take into account unique periods of risk. Future research implications are discussed.

Family-based and external discrimination experienced by multiracial individuals: Links to internalizing symptoms and familial support.

Multiracial individuals are exposed to many forms of interpersonal racial discrimination, including general discrimination against their monoracial groups and discrimination against being multiracial. Because their families include members of different racial groups, multiracial people may also be exposed to various forms of discrimination from within the family. In the present study, we leverage recent advances in latent profile analysis to identify distinct patterns of family-based and external (i.e., from outside the family unit) discrimination experienced by multiracial college students, the differential impacts of these discrimination patterns on depressive and anxiety symptoms, and whether parental support of participants' multiracial experiences and identity impacts their exposure to different forms of discrimination. In a sample of 635 diverse multiracial college students (Mage = 21.2, SD = 5.3, range = 18-57, 74.0% female) from three U.S. universities, we identified three distinct discrimination profiles: High External and Familial Discrimination (43.2%), Average External Low Familial Discrimination (32.1%), and Low External and Familial Discrimination (24.7%). Profiles differed in depressive and anxiety symptomatology, with those in the High External and Familial Discrimination profile displaying the worst outcomes. Parental support of multiracial experiences was associated with lower levels of family-based discrimination. The complex relations between parental support, family-based discrimination, and multiracial participants' internalizing symptomology are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

When ethnic-racial discrimination from math teachers spills over and predicts the math adjustment of nondiscriminated adolescents: The mediating role of math classroom climate perceptions.

Ethnic-racial discrimination is a pernicious experience that affects discriminated adolescents' healthy human development, but the spillover consequences of discrimination on the nondiscriminated adolescent population are less clear. Adolescents who vicariously witness their classmates experience ethnic-racial discrimination from educators may question their educators' authority and classroom rules, and educators who perpetuate discrimination may engage in other practices that disadvantage the entire classroom. Thus, we posed three research questions: Did classmates' ethnic-racial discrimination from teachers predict adolescents' classroom adjustment outcomes (e.g., class grades, test scores, and engagement), did classroom climate mediate the link between classmates' ethnic-racial discrimination and adolescents' classroom adjustment outcomes, and did the results differ between early versus middle adolescents? To answer these research questions, the present study leveraged longitudinal data among 1,539 adolescents (Mage = 13.81, SDage = 1.49; 60% Black, 30% White, 9% other, 1% Asian; 49% female, 51% male) nested in 104 math classrooms, as math is a subject domain with pervasive ethnic-racial stereotypes about students' abilities and opportunities to succeed in class. Results illustrated that direct and vicarious ethnic-racial discrimination from math educators in the fall semester predicted worse math course grades, state-administered standardized test scores, and classroom engagement across the fall and spring semesters. Math classroom climate perceptions mediated the longitudinal relations between ethnic-racial discrimination and their math adjustment outcomes, and the role of ethnic-racial discrimination varied across different developmental stages of adolescence. Implications for the measurement of ethnic-racial discrimination in the classroom context and the social contagion linked to ethnic-racial disadvantage are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Understanding how Latinx youth cope with discrimination: A call to action.

Racial-ethnic discrimination leads to poorer academic and mental health outcomes for Latinx youth. Although there is a growing literature on the resilience processes that shield Latinx youth from the negative ramifications of these experiences, there is limited work that specifically considers the coping behaviors and processes that youth enact to counter the harmful impact of racial-ethnic discrimination. This limited work is further hampered by a lack of measurement tools that account for the uniqueness of racial-ethnic discrimination as a stressor and the culturally relevant coping strategies endemic to Latinx populations. This article reviews the mixed findings among studies that have examined discrimination, coping strategies, and Latinx youth outcomes. Furthermore, the pressing need for a new measure that would better capture the nuanced manner in which Latinx adolescents cope with racism-related stress is outlined. This work concludes with methodological considerations as well as recommendations for the field's study of coping with the insidious impact of racism-related stress among Latinx adolescents. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Differences and similarities between ethnic-racial identity and critical consciousness links among diverse parents of color.

Parents of color's critical consciousness development (understanding of and actions to redress societal inequalities) is an important yet understudied area, especially relative to the burgeoning literature on youth's critical consciousness development. As with youth of color, ethnic-racial identity, or the meaning and importance placed on one's ethnic-racial group membership, likely plays a notable yet complex role in parents' critical consciousness. Specifically, parents' participation in activities that engage them in the culture of their racial-ethnic group (exploration), the importance they place on race-ethnicity (centrality), and their perceptions of how society views their group (public regard) may each be differentially associated with understanding of inequalities (critical reflection), motivation toward ending inequalities (critical motivation), and the behaviors parents engage in to address inequalities (critical action). Further, it is possible that associations may vary across racial-ethnic groups given different sociocultural histories, experiences (including immigrant experiences), and positionality within the United States. In the present study, we employ multigroup structural equation modeling among a sample of 203 Black, 193 Asian American, and 188 Latinx parents (total N = 584, Mage = 44.46, SD = 2.49, 59.6% mothers) of an adolescent child between the ages of 13 and 17 to examine associations between ethnic-racial identity and critical consciousness across groups. Results indicate highly complex, group-specific relations between identity and critical consciousness: public regard was most consistently predictive of critical consciousness dimensions among Black parents. Exploration and centrality were most predictive among Asian American and Latinx parents, respectively. Implications for relations between ethnic-racial identity and critical consciousness in light of different group experiences are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).