Custom-Made Oocytes to Clone Non-human Primates.

In this issue of Cell, Liu et al. (2018) report the birth of two healthy cloned macaque monkeys using fetal fibroblasts. By artificially enhancing the arsenal of epigenetic modifiers in the oocyte, the authors overcome the earliest roadblocks that take place during somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT).

Comparative analysis of single-cell transcriptomics in human and Zebrafish oocytes.

BACKGROUND: Zebrafish is a popular model organism, which is widely used in developmental biology research. Despite its general use, the direct comparison of the zebrafish and human oocyte transcriptomes has not been well studied. It is significant to see if the similarity observed between the two organisms at the gene sequence level is also observed at the expression level in key cell types such as the oocyte. RESULTS: We performed single-cell RNA-seq of the zebrafish oocyte and compared it with two studies that have performed single-cell RNA-seq of the human oocyte. We carried out a comparative analysis of genes expressed in the oocyte and genes highly expressed in the oocyte across the three studies. Overall, we found high consistency between the human studies and high concordance in expression for the orthologous genes in the two organisms. According to the Ensembl database, about 60% of the human protein coding genes are orthologous to the zebrafish genes. Our results showed that a higher percentage of the genes that are highly expressed in both organisms show orthology compared to the lower expressed genes. Systems biology analysis of the genes highly expressed in the three studies showed significant overlap of the enriched pathways and GO terms. Moreover, orthologous genes that are commonly overexpressed in both organisms were involved in biological mechanisms that are functionally essential to the oocyte. CONCLUSIONS: Orthologous genes are concurrently highly expressed in the oocytes of the two organisms and these genes belong to similar functional categories. Our results provide evidence that zebrafish could serve as a valid model organism to study the oocyte with direct implications in human.

Jumonji domain-containing protein 3 regulates histone 3 lysine 27 methylation during bovine preimplantation development.

Understanding the mechanisms of epigenetic remodeling that follow fertilization is a fundamental step toward understanding the bases of early embryonic development and pluripotency. Extensive and dynamic chromatin remodeling is observed after fertilization, including DNA methylation and histone modifications. These changes underlie the transition from gametic to embryonic chromatin and are thought to facilitate embryonic genome activation. In particular, trimethylation of histone 3 lysine 27 (H3K27me3) is associated with gene-specific transcription repression. Global levels of this epigenetic mark are high in oocyte chromatin and decrease to minimal levels at the time of embryonic genome activation. We provide evidence that the decrease in H3K27me3 observed during early development is cell-cycle independent, suggesting an active mechanism for removal of this epigenetic mark. Among H3K27me3-specific demethylases, Jumonji domain-containing protein 3 (JMJD3), but not ubiquitously transcribed tetratricopeptide repeat X (UTX), present high transcript levels in oocytes. Soon after fertilization JMJD3 protein levels increase, concurrent with a decrease in mRNA levels. This pattern of expression suggests maternal inheritance of JMJD3. Knockdown of JMJD3 by siRNA injection in parthenogenetically activated metaphase II oocytes resulted in inhibition of the H3K27me3 decrease normally observed in preimplantation embryos. Moreover, knockdown of JMJD3 in oocytes reduced the rate of blastocyst development. Overall, these results indicate that JMJD3 is involved in active demethylation of H3K27me3 during early embryo development and that this mark plays an important role during the progression of embryos to blastocysts.

Functional characterization of SOX2 in bovine preimplantation embryos.

To date, efforts to establish pluripotent embryonic stem cells from bovine embryos have failed. The lack of reliable pluripotency markers is an important drawback when attempting to derive these cells. This study aimed to identify genes upregulated in the inner cell mass (ICM) of bovine blastocysts, and we selected SOX2 for further characterization. Spatial and temporal localization of the SOX2 protein revealed that its expression starts at the 16-cell stage and then becomes restricted to the ICMs of blastocysts. To study the role of SOX2 during the early development of bovine embryos, we designed siRNA to target SOX2. We began by injecting this siRNA into zygotes; the rate at which blastocysts developed declined compared to noninjected or scramble-injected controls. When only one blastomere of a two-cell embryo was injected with SOX2 siRNA, we observed development rates similar to those of controls. Daughter cells of the injected blastomere were tracked by TRITC fluorescence and found to contribute to the ICM, as select cells also lacked SOX2. Gene expression analysis revealed a decrease in SOX2 and NANOG gene expression in siRNA-injected embryos, but OCT4 expression remained unchanged. We conclude that SOX2 localizes exclusively in the ICM of bovine blastocysts, and its downregulation negatively impacts preimplantation development; however, it is still unclear as to why downregulation of SOX2 in one cell of a two-cell embryo does not affect the composition of the ICM.

Functional characterization of CDX2 during bovine preimplantation development in vitro.

Placental defects are common in bovine embryos produced using assisted reproductive techniques. A proper understanding of the events leading to inner cell mass (ICM) and trophectoderm (TE) specification could help identify the origins of such developmental failures. We focused on caudal-type homeobox transcription factor 2 (CDX2) since it has a specific role during TE differentiation in mouse embryos. Of all the preimplantation stages analyzed, CDX2 protein was present only at the blastocyst stage. To further understand the roles of CDX2 during bovine development, we depleted CDX2 mRNA; despite a significant loss of detectable protein, embryos were able to form blastocysts at the same rate as controls. Embryos lacking CDX2 did not show abnormalities in the number of TE, ICM, or total cells in the blastocyst. Expression of the developmentally important genes SOX2, POU5F1, and NANOG, or TE markers such as IFN-T and KRT18 were not affected by the reduction in CDX2 levels, nor was the localization of SOX2 and POU5F1 protein. Using a functional barrier assay, we observed that the TE epithelial layer of embryos lacking CDX2 had lost its integrity. Our results thus indicate that CDX2 is not required for TE formation during bovine development; nevertheless, it is necessary for maintaining TE integrity.

Quantitative proteomics reveals the dynamic proteome landscape of zebrafish embryos during the maternal-to-zygotic transition.

Maternal-to-zygotic transition (MZT) is central to early embryogenesis. However, its underlying molecular mechanisms are still not well described. Here, we revealed the expression dynamics of 5,000 proteins across four stages of zebrafish embryos during MZT, representing one of the most systematic surveys of proteome landscape of the zebrafish embryos during MZT. Nearly 700 proteins were differentially expressed and were divided into six clusters according to their expression patterns. The proteome expression profiles accurately reflect the main events that happen during the MZT, i.e., zygotic genome activation (ZGA), clearance of maternal mRNAs, and initiation of cellular differentiation and organogenesis. MZT is modulated by many proteins at multiple levels in a collaborative fashion, i.e., transcription factors, histones, histone-modifying enzymes, RNA helicases, and P-body proteins. Significant discrepancies were discovered between zebrafish proteome and transcriptome profiles during the MZT. The proteome dynamics database will be a valuable resource for bettering our understanding of MZT.

Early Cell Specification in Mammalian Fertilized and Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer Embryos.

Early cell specification in mammalian preimplantation embryos is an intricate cellular process that leads to coordinated spatial and temporal expression of specific genes. Proper segregation into the first two cell lineages, the inner cell mass (ICM) and the trophectoderm (TE), is imperative for developing the embryo proper and the placenta, respectively. Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) allows the formation of a blastocyst containing both ICM and TE from a differentiated cell nucleus, which means that this differentiated genome must be reprogrammed to a totipotent state. Although blastocysts can be generated efficiently through SCNT, the full-term development of SCNT embryos is impaired mostly due to placental defects. In this review, we examine the early cell fate decisions in fertilized embryos and compare them to observations in SCNT-derived embryos, in order to understand if these processes are affected by SCNT and could be responsible for the low success of reproductive cloning.

Blastocyst Cell Number and Allocation Affect the Developmental Potential and Transcriptome of Bovine Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer Embryos.

Cloning cattle using somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) is inefficient. Although the rate of development of SCNT embryos in vitro is similar to that of fertilized embryos, most fail to develop into healthy calves. In this study, we aimed to identify developmentally competent embryos according to blastocyst cell composition and perform transcriptome analysis of single embryos. Transgenic SCNT embryos expressing nuclear-localized HcRed gene at day 7 of development were imaged by confocal microscopy for cell counting and individually transferred to recipient heifers. Pregnancy rates were determined by ultrasonography. Embryos capable of establishing pregnancy by day 35 had an average of 117 ± 6 total cells, whereas embryos with an average of 128 ± 5 cells did not establish pregnancy (P < 0.05). A lesser average number of 41 ± 3 cells in the inner cell mass (ICM) also resulted in pregnancies (<0.05) than a greater number of 48 ± 2 cells in the ICM. Single embryos were then subjected to RNA sequencing for transcriptome analysis. Using weighted gene coexpression network analysis, we identified clusters of genes in which gene expression correlated with the number of total cells or ICM cells. Gene ontology analysis of these clusters revealed enriched biological processes in coenzyme metabolic process, intracellular signaling cascade, and glucose catabolic process, among others. We concluded that SCNT embryos with fewer total and ICM cell numbers resulted in greater pregnancy establishment rates and that these differences are reflected in the transcriptome of such embryos.

Somatic cell nuclear transfer in zebrafish.

We developed a method for somatic cell nuclear transfer in zebrafish using laser-ablated metaphase II eggs as recipients, the micropyle for transfer of the nucleus and an egg activation protocol after nuclear reconstruction. We produced clones from cells of both embryonic and adult origins, although the latter did not give rise to live adult clones.

RAD51 plays a crucial role in halting cell death program induced by ionizing radiation in bovine oocytes.

Reproductive health of humans and animals exposed to daily irradiants from solar/cosmic particles remains largely understudied. We evaluated the sensitivities of bovine and mouse oocytes to bombardment by krypton-78 (1 Gy) or ultraviolet B (UV-B; 100 microjoules). Mouse oocytes responded to irradiation by undergoing massive activation of caspases, rapid loss of energy without cytochrome-c release, and subsequent necrotic death. In contrast, bovine oocytes became positive for annexin-V, exhibited cytochrome-c release, and displayed mild activation of caspases and downstream DNAses but with the absence of a complete cell death program; therefore, cytoplasmic fragmentation was never observed. However, massive cytoplasmic fragmentation and increased DNA damage were induced experimentally by both inhibiting RAD51 and increasing caspase 3 activity before irradiation. Microinjection of recombinant human RAD51 prior to irradiation markedly decreased both cytoplasmic fragmentation and DNA damage in both bovine and mouse oocytes. RAD51 response to damaged DNA occurred faster in bovine oocytes than in mouse oocytes. Therefore, we conclude that upon exposure to irradiation, bovine oocytes create a physiologically indeterminate state of partial cell death, attributed to rapid induction of DNA repair and low activation of caspases. The persistence of these damaged cells may represent an adaptive mechanism with potential implications for livestock productivity and long-term health risks associated with human activity in space.

Therapeutic cloning and cellular reprogramming.

Embryonic stem cells are capable of differentiating into any cell-type present in an adult organism, and constitute a renewable source of tissue for regenerative therapies. The transplant of allogenic stem cells is challenging due to the risk of immune rejection. Nevertheless, somatic cell reprogramming techniques allow the generation of isogenic embryonic stem cells, genetically identical to the patient. In this chapter we will discuss the cellular reprogramming techniques in the context of regenerative therapy and the biological and technical barriers that they will need to overcome before clinical use.

Human sperm devoid of PLC, zeta 1 fail to induce Ca(2+) release and are unable to initiate the first step of embryo development.

Egg activation, which is the first step in the initiation of embryo development, involves both completion of meiosis and progression into mitotic cycles. In mammals, the fertilizing sperm delivers the activating signal, which consists of oscillations in free cytosolic Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)). Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) is a technique that in vitro fertilization clinics use to treat a myriad of male factor infertility cases. Importantly, some patients who repeatedly fail ICSI also fail to induce egg activation and are, therefore, sterile. Here, we have found that sperm from patients who repeatedly failed ICSI were unable to induce [Ca(2+)](i) oscillations in mouse eggs. We have also shown that PLC, zeta 1 (PLCZ1), the sperm protein thought to induce [Ca(2+)](i) oscillations, was localized to the equatorial region of wild-type sperm heads but was undetectable in sperm from patients who had failed ICSI. The absence of PLCZ1 in these patients was further confirmed by Western blot, although genomic sequencing failed to reveal conclusive PLCZ1 mutations. Using mouse eggs, we reproduced the failure of sperm from these patients to induce egg activation and rescued it by injection of mouse Plcz1 mRNA. Together, our results indicate that the inability of human sperm to initiate [Ca(2+)](i) oscillations leads to failure of egg activation and sterility and that abnormal PLCZ1 expression underlies this functional defect.

A 13-plex of tetra- and penta-STRs to identify zebrafish.

The zebrafish species Danio rerio has become one of the major vertebrate model organisms used in biomedical research. However, there are aspects of the model that need to be improved. One of these is the ability to identify individual fish and fish lines by DNA profiling. Although many dinucleotide short tandem repeat (diSTR) markers are available for this and similar purposes, they have certain disadvantages such as an excessive polymerase slippage ("stutter") that causes difficulties in automated genotyping and cross-laboratory comparisons. Here we report on the development of a 13-plex of tetranucleotide and pentanucleotide STRs (tetraSTRs and pentaSTRs, respectively) that have low stutter. The system uses an inexpensive universal primer labelling system, which can easily be converted to a direct labeling system if desired. This 13-plex was examined in three zebrafish lines (NHGRI-1, kca33Tg, and kca66Tg, originally obtained from ZIRC). The average observed heterozygosity (Ho) and expected heterozygosity (He) in these highly inbred lines were 0.291 and 0.359, respectively, which is very similar to what has been found with diSTRs. The probability of identity (PI) for all fish tested was 2.1 × 10-5 and the PI for siblings (PIsib) was 6.4 × 10-3, as calculated by the Genalex package. Ninety percent of the fish tested were correctly identified with their respective strains. It is also demonstrated that this panel can be used to confirm doubled-haploid cell lines. This multiplex should find multiple uses for improving the accuracy and reproducibility of studies using the zebrafish model.

Activation of bovine somatic cell nuclear transfer embryos by PLCZ cRNA injection.

The production of cloned animals by the transfer of a differentiated somatic cell into an enucleated oocyte circumvents fertilization. During fertilization, the sperm delivers a sperm-specific phospholipase C (PLCZ) that is responsible for triggering Ca(2)(+) oscillations and oocyte activation. During bovine somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), oocyte activation is artificially achieved by combined chemical treatments that induce a monotonic rise in intracellular Ca(2)(+) and inhibit either phosphorylation or protein synthesis. In this study, we tested the hypothesis that activation of bovine nuclear transfer embryos by PLCZ improves nuclear reprogramming. Injection of PLCZ cRNA into bovine SCNT units induced Ca(2)(+) oscillations similar to those observed after fertilization and supported high rates of blastocyst development similar to that seen in embryos produced by IVF. Furthermore, gene expression analysis at the eight-cell and blastocyst stages revealed a similar expression pattern for a number of genes in both groups of embryos. Lastly, levels of trimethylated lysine 27 at histone H3 in blastocysts were higher in bovine nuclear transfer embryos activated using cycloheximide and 6-dimethylaminopurine (DMAP) than in those activated using PLCZ or derived from IVF. These results demonstrate that exogenous PLCZ can be used to activate bovine SCNT-derived embryos and support the hypothesis that a fertilization-like activation response can enhance some aspects of nuclear reprogramming.

Production of recombinant albumin by a herd of cloned transgenic cattle.

Purified plasma derived human albumin has been available as a therapeutic product since World War II. However, cost effective recombinant production of albumin has been challenging due to the amount needed and the complex folding pattern of the protein. In an effort to provide an abundant source of recombinant albumin, a herd of transgenic cows expressing high levels of rhA in their milk was generated. Expression cassettes efficiently targeting the secretion of human albumin to the lactating mammary gland were obtained and tested in transgenic mice. A high expressing transgene was transfected in primary bovine cell lines to produce karyoplasts for use in a somatic cell nuclear transfer program. Founder transgenic cows were produced from four independent cell lines. Expression levels varying from 1-2 g/l to more than 40 g/l of correctly folded albumin were observed. The animals expressing the highest levels of rhA exhibited shortened lactation whereas cows yielding 1-2 g/l had normal milk production. This herd of transgenic cattle is an easily scalable and well characterized source of rhA for biomedical uses.

Optimized Protocol of Zebrafish Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT).

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) is an established animal model to study developmental biology as well as a wide array of human diseases. Here we describe a protocol for somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT). This protocol can be used to introduce genetic modifications in zebrafish and for the study of cell plasticity.

Use of soluble sperm extract to improve cloning efficiency in zebrafish.

During somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), egg activation is required to initiate embryonic development. In zebrafish cloning, the reconstructed egg is activated by exposing it to hypotonic water. Egg activation using water-only is not capable of activating the same intracellular calcium release as fertilization which is required for proper embryonic development. Here we test whether the use of soluble sperm extract (SSE) can properly modulate the activation of reconstructed eggs during SCNT. We microinjected SSE from genomic-inactivated zebrafish sperm into unfertilized eggs and reconstructed eggs right after somatic cell nuclear transfer. We also evaluated the most effective approach for SSE microinjection. Microinjection of SSE (with 0.68 mg/ml of protein concentration) into non-activated eggs through the micropyle induced parthenogenetic development beyond the blastula stage, whereas all water-only activated eggs failed to enter the cleavage period. Microinjection of SSE at 1 mg/ml of protein concentration into non-activated reconstructed egg improved the developmental rate of cloned embryos in comparison to non-injected control clones. The cumulative survival time of cloned embryos injected with SSE was significantly longer than reconstructed eggs activated following sham injection (P<0.01). No significant difference was found among controls (P=0.32). SSE benefits both parthenogenesis and the survival cloned embryos which have never been reported in zebrafish. Further work is necessary to define the functional component(s) of SSE as well as the physiological pathway, to understand its principle of action and advance the utilization of SSE in cloning.

Parthenogenetic activation of bovine oocytes using bovine and murine phospholipase C zeta.

BACKGROUND: During natural fertilization, sperm fusion with the oocyte induces long lasting intracellular calcium oscillations which in turn are responsible for oocyte activation. PLCZ1 has been identified as the factor that the sperm delivers into the egg to induce such a response. We tested the hypothesis that PLCZ1 cRNA injection can be used to activate bovine oocytes. RESULTS: Mouse and bovine PLCZ1 cRNAs were injected into matured bovine oocytes at different concentrations. Within the concentrations tested, mouse PLCZ1 injection activated bovine oocytes at a maximum rate when the pipette concentration of cRNA ranged from 0.25 to 1 mug/muL, while bovine PLCZ1 was optimal at 0.1 mug/muL. At their most effective concentrations, PLCZ1 induced parthenogenetic development at rates similar to those observed using other activation stimuli such as Ionomycin/CHX and Ionomycin/DMAP. Injection of mouse and bovine PLCZ1 cRNA induced dose-dependent sperm-like calcium oscillations whose frequency increased over time. Injection of bovine and mouse PLCZ1 cRNA also induced IP3R-1 degradation, although bovine PLCZ1 cRNA evoked greater receptor degradation than its mouse counterpart. CONCLUSION: Injection of PLCZ1 cRNA efficiently activated bovine oocytes by inducing a sperm-like calcium oscillatory pattern. Importantly, the high rate of aneuploidy encountered in parthenogenetic embryos activated by certain chemical means was not observed in PLCZ1 activated embryos.

Trichostatin A improves histone acetylation in bovine somatic cell nuclear transfer early embryos.

Epigenetic aberrancies likely preclude correct and complete nuclear reprogramming following somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), and may underlie the observed reduced viability of cloned embryos. In the present study, we tested the effects of the histone deacetylase inhibitor (HDACi), trichostatin A (TSA), on development and histone acetylation of cloned bovine preimplantation embryos. Our results indicated that treating activated reconstructed SCNT embryos with 50 nM TSA for 13 h produced eight-cell embryos with levels of acetylation of histone H4 at lysine 5 (AcH4K5) similar to fertilized counterparts and significantly greater than in control NT embryos (p < 0.005). Further, TSA treatment resulted in SCNT embryos with preimplantation developmental potential similar to fertilized counterparts, as no difference was observed in cleavage and blastocyst rates or in blastocyst total cell number (p > 0.05). Measurement of eight selected developmentally important genes in single blastocysts showed a similar expression profile among the three treatment groups, with the exception of Nanog, Cdx2, and DNMT3b, whose expression levels were higher in TSA-treated NT than in in vitro fertilized (IVF) embryos. Data presented herein demonstrate that TSA can improve at least one epigenetic mark in early cloned bovine embryos. However, evaluation of development to full-term is necessary to ascertain whether this effect reflects a true increase in developmental potential.