Intravenous methylprednisolone pulses in hospitalised patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia: a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial.

RATIONALE: Pulse glucocorticoid therapy is used in hyperinflammation related to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). We evaluated the efficacy and safety of pulse intravenous methylprednisolone in addition to standard treatment in COVID-19 pneumonia. METHODS: In this multicentre, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, 304 hospitalised patients with COVID-19 pneumonia were randomised to receive 1 g of methylprednisolone intravenously for three consecutive days or placebo in addition to standard dexamethasone. The primary outcome was the duration of patient hospitalisation, calculated as the time interval between randomisation and hospital discharge without the need for supplementary oxygen. The key secondary outcomes were survival free from invasive ventilation with orotracheal intubation and overall survival. RESULTS: Overall, 112 (75.4%) out of 151 patients in the pulse methylprednisolone arm and 111 (75.2%) of 150 in the placebo arm were discharged from hospital without oxygen within 30 days from randomisation. Median time to discharge was similar in both groups (15 days, 95% CI 13.0-17.0 days and 16 days, 95% CI 13.8-18.2 days, respectively; hazard ratio (HR) 0.92, 95% CI 0.71-1.20; p=0.528). No significant differences between pulse methylprednisolone and placebo arms were observed in terms of admission to intensive care unit with orotracheal intubation or death (20.0% versus 16.1%; HR 1.26, 95% CI 0.74-2.16; p=0.176) or overall mortality (10.0% versus 12.2%; HR 0.83, 95% CI 0.42-1.64; p=0.584). Serious adverse events occurred with similar frequency in the two groups. CONCLUSIONS: Methylprenisolone pulse therapy added to dexamethasone was not of benefit in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia.

Efficient T-Cell Compartment in HIV-Positive Patients Receiving Orthotopic Liver Transplant and Immunosuppressive Therapy.

BACKGROUND: In patients undergoing orthotopic liver transplant (OLT), immunosuppressive treatment is mandatory and infections are leading causes of morbidity/mortality. Thus, it is essential to understand the functionality of cell-mediated immunity after OLT. The aim of the study was to identify changes in T-cell phenotype and polyfunctionality in human immunodeficiency virus-positive (HIV+) and -negative (HIV-) patients undergoing immunosuppressive treatment after OLT. METHODS: We studied peripheral blood mononuclear cells from 108 subjects divided into 4 groups of 27: HIV+ transplanted patients, HIV- transplanted patients, HIV+ nontransplanted patients, and healthy subjects. T-cell activation, differentiation, and cytokine production were analyzed by flow cytometry. RESULTS: Median age was 55 years (interquartile range, 52-59 years); the median CD4 count in HIV+ patients was 567 cells/mL, and all had undetectable viral load. CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell subpopulations showed different distributions between HIV+ and HIV- OLT patients. A cluster representing effector cells expressing PD1 was abundant in HIV- transplanted patients and they were characterized by higher levels of CD4+ T cells able to produce interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factor-α. CONCLUSIONS: HIV- transplanted patients have more exhausted or inflammatory T cells compared to HIV+ transplanted patients, suggesting that patients who have already experienced a form of immunosuppression due to HIV infection respond differently to anti-rejection therapy.

COVID-19 Outbreak in Italy: Report on the First 124 Consecutive Patients Treated at Home.

North Italy emerged as an epicenter of COVID-19 in the Western world. The majority of studies of patients with COVID-19 have focused on hospitalized patients, and data on early outpatient treatment are limited. This research retrospectively examines consecutive symptomatic adults who did not present to a hospital but who experience laboratory confirmed (nasopharyngeal swabs) or probable COVID-19 infection. From March 12 to April 12, 2020, 124 consecutive patients with laboratory-confirmed COVID-19 infection (84%) or with epidemiologically linked exposure to a person with confirmed infection (16%) were managed at home. The diagnosis of pneumonia was made with a portable ultrasound. COVID-19 treatment was based on low-dose hydroxychloroquine with or without darunavir/cobicistat or azithromycin and enoxaparine for bedridden patients. The patients were monitored by telemedicine. The primary endpoints were clinical improvement or hospitalization, and the secondary endpoints were mortality at day 30 and at day 60. Forty-seven (37.9%) patients had mild COVID-19 infection, 44 (35.5%) had moderate COVID-19 infection, and 33 (26.6%) had severe COVID-19 infection. Four patients (3.2%) were hospitalized and there were no deaths at day 30 and at day 60. Only mild side effects were reported. Early home treatment of COVID-19 patients resulted in a low hospitalization rate with no deaths, with the limitations of the small sample size and that it was conducted within a single geographic area. We believe that this model may be easily reproduced in both cities and rural areas around the world to treat COVID-19 infection.

Coronavirus disease-2019 in cancer patients. A report of the first 25 cancer patients in a western country (Italy).

Background: We describe cancer patients with coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) infection treated at the Piacenza's general hospital (north Italy). Materials & methods: 25 cancer patients infected by COVID-19 admitted at the Piacenza's general hospital from 21 February to 18 March 2020. Outcome from the infection were compared with infected noncancer patients. Results: 20 patients (80%) were treated with antiviral therapy and hydroxychloroquine and five (20%) received hydroxychloroquine alone. Nine (36%) patients died, while 16 (64%) overcome the infection. In the control group the mortality was 16.13% and the overcome from infection was 83.87%. Conclusion: Mortality for COVID-19 was greater in cancer patients when compared with noncancer patients, worse prognosis for older age, women and patients treated with hydroxychloroquine alone. However, the comparisons did not reach statistical significance in most cases. This could be due to the small sample size that is the main limitation of the study.

Not just minor resections: robotic approach for cystic echinococcosis of the liver.

INTRODUCTION: Human echinococcosis is among the 17 neglected tropical diseases recognized by the World Health Organization. It is responsible for over $3 billion of health costs every year being endemic in large areas worldwide, and liver is affected in 70% of the cases. Surgery associated to medical treatment is the gold standard and robotic approach may be a valuable tool to achieve safe, parenchyma sparing resections. METHODS: We retrospectively analyzed the outcomes of patients that underwent robotic radical surgical treatment for hydatid liver disease, from prospectively maintained databases of three Italian centers. RESULTS: 15 patients were included in this study, median age 51 years (24-76). 1 right hepatectomy, 2 left lateral sectionectomies, 5 segmentectomies (including 1 caudatectomy), 3 wedge resections and 5 cyst-pericystectomies were performed. Median estimated blood loss was of 100 ml (50-550 ml), and median operative time including docking was 210 min (95-590 min), with no need for conversion to open. Median hospital stay was 4 days, with only one readmission for fever. Only one patient experienced recurrence in a different liver segment. CONCLUSIONS: In our experience, robotic approach for cystic echinococcosis of the liver proved to be a safe and effective strategy also in the so-called "difficult segments", with short post-operative stay and quick return to daily activities, along with the absence of surgical site recurrences. To the best of our knowledge, this is the largest report of robotic approach to hydatid liver disease.

A frailty index predicts post-liver transplant morbidity and mortality in HIV-positive patients.

BACKGROUND: We hypothesized that frailty acts as a measure of health outcomes in the context of LT. The aim of this study was to explore frailty index across LT, as a measure of morbidity and mortality. This was a retrospective observational study including all consecutive 47 HIV+patients who received LT in Modena, Italy from 2003 to June 2015. METHODS: frailty index (FI) was constructed from 30 health variables. It was used both as a continuous score and as a categorical variable, defining 'most frail' a FI > 0.45. FI change across transplant (deltaFI, ΔFI) was calculated as the difference between year 1 FI (FI-Y1) and pre-transplant FI (FI-t0). The outcomes measures were mortality and "otpimal LT" (defined as being alive without multi-morbidity). RESULTS: Median value of FI-t0 was 0.48 (IQR 0.42-0.52), FI-Y1 was 0.31 (IQR 0.26-0.41). At year five mortality rate was 45%, "optimal transplant" rate at year 1 was 38%. All the patients who died in the post-LT were most frail in the pre-LT. ΔFI was a predictor of mortality after correction for age and MELD (HR = 1.10, p = 0.006) and was inversely associated with optimal transplant after correction for age (HR = 1.04, p = 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: We validated FI as a valuable health measure in HIV transplant. In particular, we found a relevant correlation between FI strata at baseline and mortality and a statistically significant correlation between, ΔFI and survival rate.

Detection of Pneumocystis jirovecii and Aspergillus spp. DNa in bronchoalveolar lavage fluids by commercial real-time PCr assays: comparison with conventional diagnostic tests.

The present study employed two commercial real-time PCR kits, MycAssay� Pneumocystis (PJ-PCR) and MycAssay� Aspergillus (ASP-PCR), for the search of fungal DNA on 44 bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluids from patients at risk of invasive fungal disease. Operationally, on the basis of clinical diagnosis and according to the European Organization for Research and Treatment Cancer/Mycoses Study Group (EORTC/MSG) criteria, patients were clustered in 3 groups: a P. jirovecii pneumonia (PCP) group, an invasive aspergillosis (IA) group and a control (CTRL) group, consisting of 8, 10 and 24 patients, respectively. The results were compared to those obtained with conventional diagnostic assays, including BAL culture, galactomannan-ELISA (GM) and immunofluorescence (IF). The PJ-PCR assay returned a sensitivity and specificity of 100% and 94.4%, respectively. The ASP-PCR assay showed a sensitivity and specificity of 80% and 97.1%. When compared to the culture assay, the ASP-PCR showed enhanced sensitivity, and a good level of agreement (kappa = 0.63) was observed between ASP-PCR and GM assays. Overall, our data emphasize the diagnostic usefulness of the two commercial real-time PCR assays, especially in high-risk patients where timing is critical and a low fungal burden may hamper correct and prompt diagnosis by conventional tests.

Characterization of an influenza B virus isolated from a fatal case of myocarditis in a pediatric patient in Italy.

Influenza B is one of the infective agents that can cause rapid and fatal myocarditis in children. Here, we describe a fatal case of myocarditis in a previously healthy child, after infection with an influenza B/Victoria-lineage virus during the 2022-23 epidemic season in Italy. Influenza B virus was isolated also in a second case, a younger family member showing only a mild influenza-like illness. Genotypic and phenotypic analyses have been performed on both virus samples and results showed that HA1 sequences were identical and genetically and antigenically related to other B viruses circulating in 2022-23 season in Italy. However, a D129N substitution was found in the receptor binding domain of the HA of the two viruses, not detected in other circulating viruses in Italy but only in a proportion of those circulating in other European countries. Phenotypic analyses assessed the susceptibility towards either neuraminidase inhibitors and baloxavir. Annual influenza vaccination remains one of the best interventions to prevent complications such as myocarditis, particularly in children.

Mucorales-specific T cells emerge in the course of invasive mucormycosis and may be used as a surrogate diagnostic marker in high-risk patients.

Mucorales-specific T cells were investigated in 28 hematologic patients during the course of their treatment. Three developed proven invasive mucormycosis (IM), 17 had infections of known origin but other than IM, and 8 never had fever during the period of observation. Mucorales-specific T cells could be detected only in patients with IM, both at diagnosis and throughout the entire course of the IM, but neither before nor for long after resolution of the infection. Such T cells predominantly produced IL-4, IFN-γ, IL-10, and to a lesser extent IL-17 and belonged to either CD4(+) or CD8(+) subsets. The specific T cells that produced IFN-γ were able to directly induce damage to Mucorales hyphae. None of the 25 patients without IM had Mucorales-specific T cells. Specific T cells contribute to human immune responses against fungi of the order Mucorales and could be evaluated as a surrogate diagnostic marker of IM.

GRAd-COV2 vaccine provides potent and durable humoral and cellular immunity to SARS-CoV-2 in randomized placebo-controlled phase 2 trial.

The ongoing severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic and heterologous immunization approaches implemented worldwide for booster doses call for diversified vaccine portfolios. GRAd-COV2 is a gorilla adenovirus-based COVID-19 vaccine candidate encoding prefusion-stabilized spike. The safety and immunogenicity of GRAd-COV2 is evaluated in a dose- and regimen-finding phase 2 trial (COVITAR study, ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT04791423) whereby 917 eligible participants are randomized to receive a single intramuscular GRAd-COV2 administration followed by placebo, or two vaccine injections, or two doses of placebo, spaced over 3 weeks. Here, we report that GRAd-COV2 is well tolerated and induces robust immune responses after a single immunization; a second administration increases binding and neutralizing antibody titers. Potent, variant of concern (VOC) cross-reactive spike-specific T cell response peaks after the first dose and is characterized by high frequencies of CD8s. T cells maintain immediate effector functions and high proliferative potential over time. Thus, GRAd vector is a valuable platform for genetic vaccine development, especially when robust CD8 response is needed.

Phylogeography and genomic epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2 in Italy and Europe with newly characterized Italian genomes between February-June 2020.

The aims of this study were to characterize new SARS-CoV-2 genomes sampled all over Italy and to reconstruct the origin and the evolutionary dynamics in Italy and Europe between February and June 2020. The cluster analysis showed only small clusters including < 80 Italian isolates, while most of the Italian strains were intermixed in the whole tree. Pure Italian clusters were observed mainly after the lockdown and distancing measures were adopted. Lineage B and B.1 spread between late January and early February 2020, from China to Veneto and Lombardy, respectively. Lineage B.1.1 (20B) most probably evolved within Italy and spread from central to south Italian regions, and to European countries. The lineage B.1.1.1 (20D) developed most probably in other European countries entering Italy only in the second half of March and remained localized in Piedmont until June 2020. In conclusion, within the limitations of phylogeographical reconstruction, the estimated ancestral scenario suggests an important role of China and Italy in the widespread diffusion of the D614G variant in Europe in the early phase of the pandemic and more dispersed exchanges involving several European countries from the second half of March 2020.

HHV-6A in syncytial giant-cell hepatitis.

Syncytial giant-cell hepatitis is a rare but severe form of hepatitis that is associated with autoimmune diseases, drug reactions, and viral infections. We used serologic, molecular, and immunohistochemical methods to search for an infectious cause in a case of syncytial giant-cell hepatitis that developed in a liver-transplant recipient who had latent infection with variant B of human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6B) and who had received the organ from a donor with variant A latent infection (HHV-6A). At the onset of the disease, the detection of HHV-6A (but not HHV-6B) DNA in plasma, in affected liver tissue, and in single micromanipulated syncytial giant cells with the use of two different polymerase-chain-reaction (PCR) assays indicated the presence of active HHV-6A infection in the patient. Expression of the HHV-6A-specific early protein, p41/38, but not of the HHV-6B-specific late protein, p101, was demonstrated only in liver syncytial giant cells in the absence of other infectious pathogens. The same markers of HHV-6A active infection were documented in serial follow-up samples from the patient and disappeared only at the resolution of syncytial giant-cell hepatitis. Neither HHV-6B DNA nor late protein was identified in the same follow-up samples from the patient. Thus, HHV-6A may be a cause of syncytial giant-cell hepatitis.

Severe COVID-19 pneumonia in Piacenza, Italy - A cohort study of the first pandemic wave.

BACKGROUND: Piacenza is the closest city to the first coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) cluster in Italy and has the highest national COVID-19 death rates per population. The objective of this study is to present characteristics and outcomes of patients admitted to medical departments of the Hospital of Piacenza during the first wave of the epidemic. METHODS: A total of 218 patients with confirmed or suspect COVID-19 and severe pneumonia were included from February 21st to May 15th, 2020. Routinely-collected clinical and laboratory data were retrospectively retrieved from electronic medical files. A Cox proportional-hazards model was fit to assess the association of treatment and other variables with death. RESULTS: Median age of patients was 68 years; 150 patients (69%) had comorbidities, mainly hypertension (107, 49%). Overall, 185 (85%) patients had acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) on admission, including 103 (47%) with moderate or severe ARDS. Chest computed tomography scan showed bilateral disease in 201 (98%) and extensive lung involvement in 79 (50%) patients. Most patients received antiviral treatment (187, 86%) and corticosteroids (134, 61%). All patients received respiratory support and 64 (29%) were admitted to intensive care unit. As of June 30th, 100 patients (46%) died, 109 patients (50%) were discharged, and 9 patients (4%) were still hospitalized. In multivariable Cox analysis, age above 65 years, having more than one comorbidity, severe ARDS, low platelet counts, and high LDH levels at admission were associated with mortality, while having diarrhea at admission was associated with survival. The use of antivirals or corticosteroids was not associated with survival. CONCLUSIONS: Overall case fatality rates were high and associated with comorbidities, extensive lung involvement, ARDS at admission, and advanced age. The use of antivirals was not associated with increased survival.

Treatment for COVID-19-a cohort study from Northern Italy.

Multicentre, retrospective cohort study with multivariable Cox proportional-hazards modelling and survival-time inverse-probability-weighting, evaluating the impact of different treatments on survival of proven COVID-19 patients admitted to two Hospitals in the province of Piacenza, Italy. Use of tocilizumab and of high doses of low molecular weight heparin, but not of antivirals (either alone or in combination), azithromycin, and any corticosteroid, was independently associated with lower mortality. Our results support further clinical evaluation of high doses of low molecular weight heparin and tocilizumab as COVID-19 therapeutics.

Herpes Simplex Virus Re-Activation in Patients with SARS-CoV-2 Pneumonia: A Prospective, Observational Study.

BACKGROUND: Herpes simplex 1 co-infections in patients with COVID-19 are considered relatively uncommon; some reports on re-activations in patients in intensive-care units were published. The aim of the study was to analyze herpetic re-activations and their clinical manifestations in hospitalized COVID-19 patients, performing HSV-1 PCR on plasma twice a week. METHODS: we conducted a prospective, observational, single-center study involving 70 consecutive patients with severe/critical SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia tested for HSV-1 hospitalized at Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria of Modena. RESULTS: of these 70 patients, 21 (30.0%) showed detectable viremia and 13 (62%) had clinically relevant manifestations of HSV-1 infection corresponding to 15 events (4 pneumonia, 5 herpes labialis, 3 gingivostomatitis, one encephalitis and two hepatitis). HSV-1 positive patients were more frequently treated with steroids than HSV-1 negative patients (76.2% vs. 49.0%, p = 0.036) and more often underwent mechanical ventilation (IMV) (57.1% vs. 22.4%, p = 0.005). In the unadjusted logistic regression analysis, steroid treatment, IMV, and higher LDH were significantly associated with an increased risk of HSV1 re-activation (odds ratio 3.33, 4.61, and 16.9, respectively). The association with the use of steroids was even stronger after controlling for previous use of both tocilizumab and IMV (OR = 5.13, 95% CI:1.36-19.32, p = 0.016). The effect size was larger when restricting to participants who were treated with high doses of steroids while there was no evidence to support an association with the use of tocilizumab Conclusions: our study shows a high incidence of HSV-1 re-activation both virologically and clinically in patients with SARS-CoV-2 severe pneumonia, especially in those treated with steroids.

Effect of Tocilizumab vs Standard Care on Clinical Worsening in Patients Hospitalized With COVID-19 Pneumonia: A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is threatening billions of people worldwide. Tocilizumab has shown promising results in retrospective studies in patients with COVID-19 pneumonia with a good safety profile. Objective: To evaluate the effect of early tocilizumab administration vs standard therapy in preventing clinical worsening in patients hospitalized with COVID-19 pneumonia. Design, Setting, and Participants: Prospective, open-label, randomized clinical trial that randomized patients hospitalized between March 31 and June 11, 2020, with COVID-19 pneumonia to receive tocilizumab or standard of care in 24 hospitals in Italy. Cases of COVID-19 were confirmed by polymerase chain reaction method with nasopharyngeal swab. Eligibility criteria included COVID-19 pneumonia documented by radiologic imaging, partial pressure of arterial oxygen to fraction of inspired oxygen (Pao2/Fio2) ratio between 200 and 300 mm Hg, and an inflammatory phenotype defined by fever and elevated C-reactive protein. Interventions: Patients in the experimental arm received intravenous tocilizumab within 8 hours from randomization (8 mg/kg up to a maximum of 800 mg), followed by a second dose after 12 hours. Patients in the control arm received supportive care following the protocols of each clinical center until clinical worsening and then could receive tocilizumab as a rescue therapy. Main Outcome and Measures: The primary composite outcome was defined as entry into the intensive care unit with invasive mechanical ventilation, death from all causes, or clinical aggravation documented by the finding of a Pao2/Fio2 ratio less than 150 mm Hg, whichever came first. Results: A total of 126 patients were randomized (60 to the tocilizumab group; 66 to the control group). The median (interquartile range) age was 60.0 (53.0-72.0) years, and the majority of patients were male (77 of 126, 61.1%). Three patients withdrew from the study, leaving 123 patients available for the intention-to-treat analyses. Seventeen patients of 60 (28.3%) in the tocilizumab arm and 17 of 63 (27.0%) in the standard care group showed clinical worsening within 14 days since randomization (rate ratio, 1.05; 95% CI, 0.59-1.86). Two patients in the experimental group and 1 in the control group died before 30 days from randomization, and 6 and 5 patients were intubated in the 2 groups, respectively. The trial was prematurely interrupted after an interim analysis for futility. Conclusions and Relevance: In this randomized clinical trial of hospitalized adult patients with COVID-19 pneumonia and Pao2/Fio2 ratio between 200 and 300 mm Hg who received tocilizumab, no benefit on disease progression was observed compared with standard care. Further blinded, placebo-controlled randomized clinical trials are needed to confirm the results and to evaluate possible applications of tocilizumab in different stages of the disease. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT04346355; EudraCT Identifier: 2020-001386-37.

Organising pneumonia mimicking invasive fungal disease in patients with leukaemia.

Clinical charts from 63 consecutive highly immunocompromised haematologic patients presenting with pulmonary nodular lesions on CT scan, classified as either probable or possible invasive fungal disease (IFD) according to the revised EORTC/MSG classification, were retrospectively studied. Histopathological analysis of lung tissues, available for 23 patients, demonstrated proven IFD in 17 cases (14 invasive aspergillosis and 3 invasive zygomycosis), diffuse alveolar damage in one and organising pneumonia (OP) in five cases. In the OP cases, three of which have been defined as probable IFD according to EORTC/MSG classification, extensive immunohistochemical, molecular and immunological analyses for fungi were negative. Our case descriptions extend the notion that OP may be encountered as a distinct histopathological entity in pulmonary nodular lesions in patients with leukaemia with probable/possible IFD.

Case Report: B Lymphocyte Disorders Under COVID-19 Inflammatory Pressure.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infects humans through the angiotensin converting enzyme-2 (ACE-2) receptor expressed on many cells, including lymphocytes. In Covid-19 patients IL-6 is overexpressed, and hyperactivated plasmacytoid lymphocytes are detected in peripheral blood film. We hypothesize that, due to the unpredictable interaction between the new virus and the B cell lineage of infected patients, a cascade of out of control events can ensue, capable of determining unexpected pathologic disorders involving such lineage. Here we report two cases of autoimmune hemolytic anemia (AIHA) and two cases of B-cell hematological malignancies developed or reactivated during acute SARS-CoV-2 infection. The temporal relationship of the events may suggest a potential causal relationship between SARS-CoV-2 infection and the hematopoietic disorders. We suggest that special attention should be paid to COVID-19 patients with underlining B cell lineage disorders.

The Burden of Clostridioides Difficile Infection during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Retrospective Case-Control Study in Italian Hospitals (CloVid).

Data on the burden of Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) in Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients are scant. We conducted an observational, retrospective, multicenter, 1:3 case (COVID-19 patients with CDI)-control (COVID-19 patients without CDI) study in Italy to assess incidence and outcomes, and to identify risk factors for CDI in COVID-19 patients. From February through July 2020, 8402 COVID-19 patients were admitted to eight Italian hospitals; 38 CDI cases were identified, including 32 hospital-onset-CDI (HO-CDI) and 6 community-onset, healthcare-associated-CDI (CO-HCA-CDI). HO-CDI incidence was 4.4 × 10,000 patient-days. The percentage of cases recovering without complications at discharge (i.e., pressure ulcers, chronic heart decompensation) was lower than among controls (p = 0.01); in-hospital stays was longer among cases, 35.0 versus 19.4 days (p = 0.0007). The presence of a previous hospitalisation (p = 0.001), previous steroid administration (p = 0.008) and the administration of antibiotics during the stay (p = 0.004) were risk factors associated with CDI. In conclusions, CDI complicates COVID-19, mainly in patients with co-morbidities and previous healthcare exposures. Its association with antibiotic usage and hospital acquired bacterial infections should lead to strengthen antimicrobial stewardship programmes and infection prevention and control activities.