Medical Applications for 3D Printing: Recent Developments.

This is a review of some of the recent developments in the application of 3D printing to medicine. The topic is introduced with a brief explanation as to how and why 3D is changing practice, teaching, and research in medicine. Then, taking recent examples of progress in the field, we illustrate the current state of the art. This article concludes by evaluating the current limitations of 3D printing for medical applications and suggesting where further progress is likely to be made.

Mold management of wetted carpet.

This study evaluated the growth and removal of fungi on wetted carpet using newly designed technologies that rely on physical principles of steam, heat, and fluid flow. Sixty samples of carpet were embedded with heat-treated house dust, followed by embedding, wearing with a hexapod, and wetting. Samples were inoculated using a liquid suspension of Cladosporium sphaerospermum prior to placement over a water-saturated foam pad. Incubation times were 24 hr, 7 days, and 30 days. Cleaning was performed using three methods; high-flow hot water extraction, hot water and detergent, and steam. Fungal loading increased from approximately 1500 colony forming units per area (CFU/cm(2)) in 24 hr to a maximum of approximately 10,200 CFU/cm(2) after 7 days with a slight decline to 9700 CFU/cm(2) after 30 days incubation. Statistically significant differences were found among all three methods for removal of fungi for all three time periods (p < 0.05). Steam-vapor was significantly better than the alternative methods (p <0.001) with over 99% efficiency in mold spore decline from wetted carpet after 24 hr and 30 days, and over 92% efficiency after 7 days. The alternative methods exhibited lower efficiencies with a decline over time, from a maximum of 82% and 81% at 24 hr down to 60% and 43% at 30 days for detergent-hot water and high-flow, hot water extraction, respectively. The net effect of the mold management study demonstrates that while steam has a consistent fungal removal rate, the detergent and high-flow, hot water methods decline in efficiency with increasing incubation time.

Do new wipe materials outperform traditional lead dust cleaning methods?

Government guidelines have traditionally recommended the use of wet mopping, sponging, or vacuuming for removal of lead-contaminated dust from hard surfaces in homes. The emergence of new technologies, such as the electrostatic dry cloth and wet disposable clothes used on mopheads, for removal of dust provides an opportunity to evaluate their ability to remove lead compared with more established methods. The purpose of this study was to determine if relative differences exist between two new and two older methods for removal of lead-contaminated dust (LCD) from three wood surfaces that were characterized by different roughness or texture. Standard leaded dust, <75 µm, was deposited by gravity onto the wood specimens. Specimens were cleaned using an automated device. Electrostatic dry cloths (dry Swiffer), wet Swiffer cloths, paper shop towels with non-ionic detergent, and vacuuming were used for cleaning LCD from the specimens. Lead analysis was by anodic stripping voltammetry. After the cleaning study was conducted, a study of the coefficient of friction was performed for each wipe material. Analysis of variance was used to evaluate the surface and cleaning methods. There were significant interactions between cleaning method and surface types, p = 0.007. Cleaning method was found be a significant factor in removal of lead, p <0.001, indicating that effectiveness of each cleaning methods is different. However, cleaning was not affected by types of surfaces. The coefficient of friction, significantly different among the three wipes, is likely to influence the cleaning action. Cleaning method appears to be more important than texture in LCD removal from hard surfaces. There are some small but important factors in cleaning LCD from hard surfaces, including the limits of a Swiffer mop to conform to curved surfaces and the efficiency of the wetted shop towel and vacuuming for cleaning all surface textures. The mean percentage reduction in lead dust achieved by the traditional methods (vacuuming and wet wiping) was greater and more consistent compared to the new methods (electrostatic dry cloth and wet Swiffer mop). Vacuuming and wet wiping achieved lead reductions of 92% ± 4% and 91%, ± 4%, respectively, while the electrostatic dry cloth and wet Swiffer mops achieved lead reductions of only 89 ± 8% and  81 ± 17%, respectively.

Pitch and longitudinal fluting effects on the primary stability of miniscrew implants.

OBJECTIVE: To test the hypotheses that pitch and fluting have no effect on the primary stability of miniscrew implants (MSIs). MATERIALS AND METHODS: Maximum placement torque and pullout strength of experimental MSIs were compared with those of control MSIs with the use of synthetic and cadaver bone. MSIs with 1.00 mm pitch were compared with those with 1.25 mm and 0.75 mm pitch; MSIs with three longitudinal flutes were compared with the same MSIs without flutes. A total of 60 MSIs (15 of each design) were evaluated with synthetic bone; a split-mouth cadaver model was used to compare the three experimental designs against the 1 mm control MSIs (total of 90 MSIs). RESULTS: The synthetic bone model showed higher placement torque and pullout strength for the 0.75 pitch than for the 1.0 mm and 1.25 mm pitch MSIs, but differences were significant (P < .05) only for pullout strength. The cadaver model showed no significant differences in placement torque or pullout strength associated with pitch. Both synthetic and cadaver bone models showed that MSIs with flutes had significantly (P < .05) higher placement torque and pullout strength. Spearman correlations between placement torque and pullout strength were statistically significant for both synthetic (r = .504) and cadaver (r = .502) bone. CONCLUSION: Within limits, decreasing MSI pitch increases pullout strength, and fluting increases both placement torque and pullout strength.

Removal of lead contaminated dusts from hard surfaces.

Government guidelines have widely recommended trisodium phosphate (TSP) or "lead-specific" cleaning detergents for removal of lead-contaminated dust (LCD) from hard surfaces, such as floors and window areas. The purpose of this study was to determine if low-phosphate, non-lead-specific cleaners could be used to efficiently remove LCD from 3 types of surfaces (vinyl flooring, wood, and wallpaper). Laboratory methods were developed and validated for simulating the doping, embedding, and sponge cleaning of the 3 surface types with 4 categories of cleaners: lead-specific detergents, nonionic cleaners, anionic cleaners, and trisodium phosphate (TSP). Vinyl flooring and wood were worn using artificial means. Materials were ashed, followed by ultrasound extraction, and anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV). One-way analysis of variance approach was used to evaluate the surface and detergent effects. Surface type was found to be a significant factor in removal of lead (p < 0.001). Vinyl flooring cleaned better than wallpaper by over 14% and wood cleaned better than wallpaper by 13%. There was no difference between the cleaning action of vinyl flooring and wood. No evidence was found to support the use of TSP or lead-specific detergents over all-purpose cleaning detergents for removal of lead-contaminated dusts. No-phosphate, non-lead-specific detergents are effective in sponge cleaning of lead-contaminated hard surfaces and childhood lead prevention programs should consider recommending all-purpose household detergents for removal of lead-contaminated dust after appropriate vacuuming.