A pragmatic low carbohydrate diet intervention changes neither carbohydrate consumption nor glycemia in adolescents and young adults with type 1 diabetes in a randomized trial.

OBJECTIVE: Despite enthusiasm for low carbohydrate diets (LCDs) among patients with type 1 diabetes (T1DM), no prospective study has investigated outcomes in adolescent T1DM. We aimed to quantify a pragmatic LCD intervention's impact on glycemia, lipidemia, and quality of life (QOL) in adolescents with T1DM. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: At an academic center, we randomized 39 patients with T1DM aged 13-21 years to one of three 12-week interventions: an LCD, an isocaloric standard carbohydrate diet (SCD), or general diabetes education without a prescriptive diet. Glycemic outcomes included glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) and continuous glucose monitoring. RESULTS: There were no significant differences in glycemic, lipidemic, or QOL parameters between groups at any timepoint. Median HbA1c was similar at baseline between groups and did not change appreciably (7.9%-8.4% in LCDs, 7.9%-7.9% in SCDs, and 8.2%-7.8% in controls). Change in carbohydrate consumption was minimal with only one participant reaching target carbohydrate intake. CONCLUSIONS: This pragmatic LCD intervention did not alter carbohydrate consumption or glycemia. Although this study was unable to evaluate a highly controlled LCD, it indicates that adolescents are unlikely to implement an educational LCD intervention in routine clinic settings. Thus, this approach is unlikely to effectively mitigate hyperglycemia in adolescents.

Corrigendum to "Bistability in a differential equation model of oyster reef height and sediment accumulation" [J. Theor. Biol. 289 (2011) 1-11].

There was a mistake in the Matlab code we used to generate time series solutions of our model, Eqs. (16)-(18). The corrected text below replaces one paragraph on p. 7, and the figures below replace Figs. 4-5 on p. 8. There is no qualitative change to our results. However, there is a quantitative change in the initial dead oyster shell volume B(0) needed for reef survival. The corrected threshold B(0), about 0.40 m3 per m2 of sea floor, is more consistent with a recently experimentally estimated threshold of 0.30 m (Colden, Latour, and Lipcius, Mar Ecol Prog Ser 582: 1-13, 2017) than was our old incorrect threshold of about 0.12 m3.

Investigation of nasal epithelial cells as a surrogate for bronchial epithelial cells in the research of equine asthma.

Equine asthma, previously known as Recurrent Airway Obstruction (RAO) or Inflammatory Airway Disease (IAD), is an often-debilitating condition that may severely affect both performance and quality of life. Research is hindered by the low sample numbers of subjects recruited to studies, a consequence in part of the invasive nature of the sampling methods of bronchial brushing and biopsy. We present an alternative method of sampling equine airway epithelial cells, the 'nasal brush method' (NBM). Obtained by light brushing of the ventral meatus whilst the horse is under standing sedation, these cells express the same markers of differentiation as their deeper counterparts. Grown as 3-D spheroids or as air-liquid interface cultures, nasal epithelial cells are responsive to the inflammatory cytokine interleukin-13. This may be attenuated by modulation of the Notch signalling pathway using the gamma-secretase inhibitor Semagecestat; a previously unreported finding that cements the link between equine and human asthma research and strengthens the case for a One Health approach in researching asthma pathophysiology and therapeutic intervention.

Galleria mellonella as an infection model for the virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv.

Tuberculosis (TB), caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), is a leading cause of infectious disease mortality. Animal infection models have contributed substantially to our understanding of TB, yet their biological and non-biological limitations are a research bottleneck. There is a need for more ethically acceptable, economical, and reproducible TB infection models capable of mimicking key aspects of disease. Here, we demonstrate and present a basic description of how Galleria mellonella (the greater wax moth, Gm) larvae can be used as a low cost, rapid, and ethically more acceptable model for TB research. This is the first study to infect Gm with the fully virulent MTB H37Rv, the most widely used strain in research. Infection of Gm with MTB resulted in a symptomatic lethal infection, the virulence of which differed from both attenuated Mycobacterium bovis BCG and auxotrophic MTB strains. The Gm-MTB model can also be used for anti-TB drug screening, although CFU enumeration from Gm is necessary for confirmation of mycobacterial load reducing activity of the tested compound. Furthermore, comparative virulence of MTB isogenic mutants can be determined in Gm. However, comparison of mutant phenotypes in Gm against conventional models must consider the limitations of innate immunity. Our findings indicate that Gm will be a practical, valuable, and advantageous additional model to be used alongside existing models to advance tuberculosis research.

Lactobacilli antagonize the growth, motility, and adherence of Brachyspira pilosicoli: a potential intervention against avian intestinal spirochetosis.

Avian intestinal spirochetosis (AIS) results from the colonization of the ceca and colorectum of poultry by pathogenic Brachyspira species. The number of cases of AIS has increased since the 2006 European Union ban on the use of antibiotic growth promoters, which, together with emerging antimicrobial resistance in Brachyspira, has driven renewed interest in alternative intervention strategies. Probiotics have been reported as protecting livestock against infection with common enteric pathogens, and here we investigate which aspects of the biology of Brachyspira they antagonize in order to identify possible interventions against AIS. The cell-free supernatants (CFS) of two Lactobacillus strains, Lactobacillus reuteri LM1 and Lactobacillus salivarius LM2, suppressed the growth of Brachyspira pilosicoli B2904 in a pH-dependent manner. In in vitro adherence and invasion assays with HT29-16E three-dimensional (3D) cells and in a novel avian cecal in vitro organ culture (IVOC) model, the adherence and invasion of B. pilosicoli in epithelial cells were reduced significantly by the presence of lactobacilli (P < 0.001). In addition, live and heat-inactivated lactobacilli inhibited the motility of B. pilosicoli, and electron microscopic observations indicated that contact between the lactobacilli and Brachyspira was crucial in inhibiting both adherence and motility. These data suggest that motility is essential for B. pilosicoli to adhere to and invade the gut epithelium and that any interference of motility may be a useful tool for the development of control strategies.

Bistability in a differential equation model of oyster reef height and sediment accumulation.

Native oyster populations in Chesapeake Bay have been the focus of three decades of restoration attempts, which have generally failed to rebuild the populations and oyster reef structure. Recent restoration successes and field experiments indicate that high-relief reefs persist, likely due to elevated reef height which offsets heavy sedimentation and promotes oyster survival, disease resistance and growth, in contrast to low-relief reefs which degrade in just a few years. These findings suggest the existence of alternative stable states in oyster reef populations. We developed a mathematical model consisting of three differential equations that represent volumes of live oysters, dead oyster shells (=accreting reef), and sediment. Bifurcation analysis and numerical simulations demonstrated that multiple nonnegative equilibria can exist for live oyster, accreting reef and sediment volume at an ecologically reasonable range of parameter values; the initial height of oyster reefs determined which equilibrium was reached. This investigation thus provides a conceptual framework for alternative stable states in native oyster populations, and can be used as a tool to improve the likelihood of success in restoration efforts.

Effectiveness of a Novel Dentifrice Containing Stabilized Chlorine Dioxide, Sarkosyl, and Sodium Fluoride.

This in vitro study evaluated the effectiveness of a novel dentifrice containing stabilized chlorine dioxide, sodium lauroyl sarcosinate (sarkosyl), and sodium fluoride in enhancing enamel fluoride uptake, remineralization, pellicle cleaning and inhibiting biofilm regrowth. Remineralization was measured by fluoride uptake and surface microhardness assessment tests. Artificial stains were removed and scored based on pellicle cleaning ratio. Biofilm regrowth was measured by counting colonies on the agar plates. All studies were conducted using bovine teeth specimens. The efficacy of Toothpaste C (CloSYS anticavity toothpaste) was compared with United States Pharmacopoeia Reference Dentifrice, Toothpaste B (discontinued CloSYS anticavity toothpaste formulation) and leading commercial toothpastes. The enamel fluoride uptake and remineralization by Toothpaste C was 96.1% to 303.3% and 38.0% to 102.4% higher than the tested toothpastes, respectively. The mean pellicle cleaning ratio of Toothpaste C was similar to American Dental Association Reference Material. Toothpaste C had a significant reduction in regrowth of the oral polymicrobial biofilm compared to the control. All tested toothpastes contained 0.24% sodium fluoride. Toothpaste C exhibited significantly superior performance towards fluoride uptake and remineralization compared to the tested toothpastes. Therefore, toothpaste ingredients other than sodium fluoride accounted for the enhanced fluoride uptake and remineralization.

A novel biosafety level 2 compliant tuberculosis infection model using a ΔleuDΔpanCD double auxotroph of Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv and Galleria mellonella.

Mammalian infection models have contributed significantly to our understanding of the host-mycobacterial interaction, revealing potential mechanisms and targets for novel antimycobacterial therapeutics. However, the use of conventional mammalian models such as mice, are typically expensive, high maintenance, require specialized animal housing, and are ethically regulated. Furthermore, research using Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), is inherently difficult as work needs to be carried out at biosafety level 3 (BSL3). The insect larvae of Galleria mellonella (greater wax moth), have become increasingly popular as an infection model, and we previously demonstrated its potential as a mycobacterial infection model using Mycobacterium bovis BCG. Here we present a novel BSL2 complaint MTB infection model using G. mellonella in combination with a bioluminescent ΔleuDΔpanCD double auxotrophic mutant of MTB H37Rv (SAMTB lux) which offers safety and practical advantages over working with wild type MTB. Our results show a SAMTB lux dose dependent survival of G. mellonella larvae and demonstrate proliferation and persistence of SAMTB lux bioluminescence over a 1 week infection time course. Histopathological analysis of G. mellonella, highlight the formation of early granuloma-like structures which matured over time. We additionally demonstrate the drug efficacy of first (isoniazid, rifampicin, and ethambutol) and second line (moxifloxacin) antimycobacterial drugs. Our findings demonstrate the broad potential of this insect model to study MTB infection under BSL2 conditions. We anticipate that the successful adaptation and implementation of this model will remove the inherent limitations of MTB research at BSL3 and increase tuberculosis research output.

A mixture containing galactooligosaccharide, produced by the enzymic activity of Bifidobacterium bifidum, reduces Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium infection in mice.

The prebiotic Bimuno is a mixture containing galactooligosaccharide, produced by the galactosyltransferase activity of Bifidobacterium bifidum NCIMB 41171 in the presence of lactose. Previous studies have implicated prebiotics in reducing infections by enteric pathogens, thus it was hypothesized that Bimuno may confer some protection in the murine host from Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) infection. In this study, infection caused by S. Typhimurium SL1344nal(r) in the presence or absence of Bimuno was assessed using tissue culture assays, a murine ligated ileal gut loop model and a murine oral challenge model. In tissue culture adherence and invasion assays with HT-29-16E cells, the presence of approximately 2 mM Bimuno significantly reduced the invasion of S. Typhimurium SL1344nal(r) (P<0.0001). In the murine ligated ileal gut loops, the presence of Bimuno prevented colonization and the associated pathology of S. Typhimurium. In the BALB/c mouse model, the oral delivery of Bimuno prior to challenge with S. Typhimurium resulted in significant reductions in colonization in the five organs sampled, with highly significant reductions being observed in the spleen at 72 and 96 h post-challenge (P=0.0002, <0.0001, respectively). Collectively, the results indicate that Bimuno significantly reduced the colonization and pathology associated with S. Typhimurium infection in a murine model system, possibly by reducing the invasion of the pathogen into host cells.

Interaction of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157:H7 with mouse intestinal mucosa.

In this study, we used mouse ileal loops to investigate the interaction of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) O157:H7 with the mouse intestinal mucosa. With a dose of 10(9) and 3 h incubation, EHEC O157 was detected in the lumen and to a lesser extent associated with the epithelium. Typical attaching and effacing (A/E) lesions were seen, albeit infrequently. While the effector protein Tir was essential for A/E lesion formation, the bacterial type III secretion system adaptor protein TccP was dispensable. These results suggest that A/E lesions on mouse intestinal mucosa can be formed independently of robust actin polymerization.

Galleria mellonella - a novel infection model for the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex.

Animal models have long been used in tuberculosis research to understand disease pathogenesis and to evaluate novel vaccine candidates and anti-mycobacterial drugs. However, all have limitations and there is no single animal model which mimics all the aspects of mycobacterial pathogenesis seen in humans. Importantly mice, the most commonly used model, do not normally form granulomas, the hallmark of tuberculosis infection. Thus there is an urgent need for the development of new alternative in vivo models. The insect larvae, Galleria mellonella has been increasingly used as a successful, simple, widely available and cost-effective model to study microbial infections. Here we report for the first time that G. mellonella can be used as an infection model for members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. We demonstrate a dose-response for G. mellonella survival infected with different inocula of bioluminescent Mycobacterium bovis BCG lux, and demonstrate suppression of mycobacterial luminesence over 14 days. Histopathology staining and transmission electron microscopy of infected G. mellonella phagocytic haemocytes show internalization and aggregation of M. bovis BCG lux in granuloma-like structures, and increasing accumulation of lipid bodies within M. bovis BCG lux over time, characteristic of latent tuberculosis infection. Our results demonstrate that G. mellonella can act as a surrogate host to study the pathogenesis of mycobacterial infection and shed light on host-mycobacteria interactions, including latent tuberculosis infection.

A comparison of Shiga-toxin negative Escherichia coli O157 aflagellate and intimin deficient mutants in porcine in vitro and in vivo models of infection.

Isolation of Shiga-toxin (Stx) positive Escherichia coli O157:H7 from commercially grown pigs has been reported. Furthermore, experimental infection studies have demonstrated that Stx-positive E. coli O157:H7 can persist in 12-week-old experimentally orally inoculated conventional pigs for up to 2 months and that persistence was not dependent upon intimin. We have shown that the flagellum of Stx-negative E. coli O157:H7 does not have a role to play in pathogenesis in ruminant models whereas, in poultry, the flagellum of E. coli O157:H7 was important for long-term persistent infection. The contribution of the flagellum of Stx-negative E. coli O157 in the colonisation of pigs was investigated by adherence assays on a porcine (IPI-21) cell line, porcine in vitro organ culture (IVOC) and experimental oral inoculation of conventional 14-week-old pigs. E. coli O157:H7 NCTC12900nal(r) and isogenic aflagellate and intimin deficient mutants adhered equally well to IPI-21 cells. In porcine IVOC association assays, E. coli O157:H7 NCTC12900nal(r) was associated in significantly higher numbers to tissues from the caecum and the terminal rectum than other sites. The aflagellate and intimin deficient mutants significantly adhered in greater numbers to more IVOC gastrointestinal tissues than the parent. Groups of 14-week-old pigs were dosed orally with 10(10)CFU/10ml of either E. coli O157:H7 NCTC12900nal(r) or isogenic aflagellate and intimin deficient mutants and recovery of each test strain was similar. Histological analysis of pig tissues at post mortem examination revealed that E. coli O157 specifically stained bacteria were associated with the mucosa of the ascending and spiral colon. These data suggest that colonisation and persistence of Stx-negative E. coli O157:H7 in pigs, involves mechanisms that do not require the flagellum or intimin.

Virulence Characterisation of Salmonella enterica Isolates of Differing Antimicrobial Resistance Recovered from UK Livestock and Imported Meat Samples.

Salmonella enterica is a foodborne zoonotic pathogen of significant public health concern. We have characterized the virulence and antimicrobial resistance gene content of 95 Salmonella isolates from 11 serovars by DNA microarray recovered from UK livestock or imported meat. Genes encoding resistance to sulphonamides (sul1, sul2), tetracycline [tet(A), tet(B)], streptomycin (strA, strB), aminoglycoside (aadA1, aadA2), beta-lactam (bla TEM), and trimethoprim (dfrA17) were common. Virulence gene content differed between serovars; S. Typhimurium formed two subclades based on virulence plasmid presence. Thirteen isolates were selected by their virulence profile for pathotyping using the Galleria mellonella pathogenesis model. Infection with a chicken invasive S. Enteritidis or S. Gallinarum isolate, a multidrug resistant S. Kentucky, or a S. Typhimurium DT104 isolate resulted in high mortality of the larvae; notably presence of the virulence plasmid in S. Typhimurium was not associated with increased larvae mortality. Histopathological examination showed that infection caused severe damage to the Galleria gut structure. Enumeration of intracellular bacteria in the larvae 24 h post-infection showed increases of up to 7 log above the initial inoculum and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed bacterial replication in the haemolymph. TEM also revealed the presence of vacuoles containing bacteria in the haemocytes, similar to Salmonella containing vacuoles observed in mammalian macrophages; although there was no evidence from our work of bacterial replication within vacuoles. This work shows that microarrays can be used for rapid virulence genotyping of S. enterica and that the Galleria animal model replicates some aspects of Salmonella infection in mammals. These procedures can be used to help inform on the pathogenicity of isolates that may be antibiotic resistant and have scope to aid the assessment of their potential public and animal health risk.

Interaction with avian cells and colonisation of specific pathogen free chicks by Shiga-toxin negative Escherichia coli O157:H7 (NCTC 12900).

The prevalence of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infection in birds is low but several deliberate inoculation studies show that poultry are readily and persistently infected by this organism indicating a possible threat to public health. The mechanisms of colonisation of poultry are not understood and the aim is to establish models to study the interaction of E. coli O157:H7, at the cellular and whole animal levels. A non-toxigenic E. coli O157:H7 (NCTC 12900) was used in adherence assays with an avian epithelial cell line (Div-1) and used to inoculate 1-day-old SPF chicks. In vitro, NCTC 12900 induced micro-colonies associated with cytoskeletal arrangements and pedestal formation with intimate bacterial attachment. In the 1-day-old SPF chick, a dose of 1 x 10(5) cfu resulted in rapid and extensive colonisation of the gastrointestinal tract and transient colonisation of the liver and spleen. The number of E. coli O157:H7 organisms attained approximately 10(8) cfu/ml caecal homogenate 24h after inoculation and approximately 10(7) cfu/ml caecal homogenate was still present at day 92. Faecal shedding persisted for 169 days, ceasing 9 days after the birds came into lay and 6% of eggs were contaminated on the eggshell. Histological analysis of tissue samples from birds dosed with 1x10(7) cfu gave evidence for E. coli O157:H7 NCTC 12900 induced micro-colonies on the caecal mucosa, although evidence for attaching effacing lesions was equivocal. These models may be suitable to study those factors of E. coli O157:H7 that mediate persistent colonisation in avian species.

SPI-23 of S. Derby: role in adherence and invasion of porcine tissues.

Salmonella enterica serovars Derby and Mbandaka are isolated from different groups of livestock species in the UK. S. Derby is predominantly isolated from pigs and turkeys and S. Mbandaka is predominantly isolated from cattle and chickens. Alignment of the genome sequences of two isolates of each serovar led to the discovery of a new putative Salmonella pathogenicity island, SPI-23, in the chromosome sequence of S. Derby isolates. SPI-23 is 37 kb in length and contains 42 ORFs, ten of which are putative type III effector proteins. In this study we use porcine jejunum derived cell line IPEC-J2 and in vitro organ culture of porcine jejunum and colon, to characterise the association and invasion rates of S. Derby and S. Mbandaka, and tissue tropism of S. Derby respectively. We show that S. Derby invades and associates to an IPEC-J2 monolayer in significantly greater numbers than S. Mbandaka, and that S. Derby preferentially attaches to porcine jejunum over colon explants. We also show that nine genes across SPI-23 are up-regulated to a greater degree in the jejunum compared to the colon explants. Furthermore, we constructed a mutant of the highly up-regulated, pilV-like gene, potR, and find that it produces an excess of surface pili compared to the parent strain which form a strong agglutinating phenotype interfering with association and invasion of IPEC-J2 monolayers. We suggest that potR may play a role in tissue tropism.

Purified galactooligosaccharide, derived from a mixture produced by the enzymic activity of Bifidobacterium bifidum, reduces Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium adhesion and invasion in vitro and in vivo.

The prebiotic Bimuno(®) is a mixture containing galactooligosaccharides (GOSs), produced by the galactosyltransferase activity of Bifidobacterium bifidum NCIMB 41171 using lactose as the substrate. Previous in vivo and in vitro studies demonstrating the efficacy of Bimuno(®) in reducing Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) colonization did not ascertain whether or not the protective effects could be attributed to the prebiotic component GOS. Here we wished to test the hypothesis that GOS, derived from Bimuno(®), may confer the direct anti-invasive and protective effects of Bimuno(®). In this study the efficacy of Bimuno(®), a basal solution of Bimuno(®) without GOS [which contained glucose, galactose, lactose, maltodextrin and gum arabic in the same relative proportions (w/w) as they are found in Bimuno(®)] and purified GOS to reduce S. Typhimurium adhesion and invasion was assessed using a series of in vitro and in vivo models. The novel use of three dimensionally cultured HT-29-16E cells to study prebiotics in vitro demonstrated that the presence of ∼ 5 mg Bimuno(®) ml(-1) or ∼ 2.5 mg GOS ml(-1) significantly reduced the invasion of S. Typhimurium (SL1344nal(r)) (P<0.0001). Furthermore, ∼ 2.5 mg GOS ml(-1) significantly reduced the adherence of S. Typhimurium (SL1344nal(r)) (P<0.0001). It was demonstrated that cells produced using this system formed multi-layered aggregates of cells that displayed excellent formation of brush borders and tight junctions. In the murine ligated ileal gut loops, the presence of Bimuno(®) or GOS prevented the adherence or invasion of S. Typhimurium to enterocytes, and thus reduced its associated pathology. This protection appeared to correlate with significant reductions in the neutral and acidic mucins detected in goblet cells, possibly as a consequence of stimulating the cells to secrete the mucin into the lumen. In all assays, Bimuno(®) without GOS conferred no such protection, indicating that the basal solution confers no protective effects against S. Typhimurium. Collectively, the studies presented here clearly indicate that the protective effects conferred by Bimuno(®) can be attributed to GOS.

Intermittent Escherichia coli O157:H7 colonisation at the terminal rectum mucosa of conventionally-reared lambs.

In cattle, the lymphoid rich regions of the rectal-anal mucosa at the terminal rectum are the preferred site for Escherichia coli O157:H7 colonisation. All cattle infected by rectal swab administration demonstrate long-term E. coli O157:H7 colonisation, whereas orally challenged cattle do not demonstrate long-term E. coli O157:H7 colonisation in all animals. Oral, but not rectal challenge of sheep with E. coli O157:H7 has been reported, but an exact site for colonisation in sheep is unknown. To determine if E. coli O157:H7 can effectively colonise the ovine terminal rectum, in vitro organ culture (IVOC) was initiated. Albeit sparsely, large, densely packed E. coli O157:H7 micro-colonies were observed on the mucosa of ovine and control bovine terminal rectum explants. After necropsy of orally inoculated lambs, bacterial enumeration of the proximal and distal gastrointestinal tract did suggest a preference for E. coli O157:H7 colonisation at the ovine terminal rectum, albeit for both lymphoid rich and non-lymphoid sites. As reported for cattle, rectal inoculation studies were then conducted to determine if all lambs would demonstrate persistent colonisation at the terminal rectum. After necropsy of E. coli O157:H7 rectally inoculated lambs, most animals were not colonised at gastrointestinal sites proximal to the rectum, however, large densely packed micro-colonies of E. coli O157:H7 were observed on the ovine terminal rectum mucosa. Nevertheless, at the end point of the study (day 14), only one lamb had E. coli O157:H7 micro-colonies associated with the terminal rectum mucosa. A comparison of E. coli O157:H7 shedding yielded a similar pattern of persistence between rectally and orally inoculated lambs. The inability of E. coli O157:H7 to effectively colonise the terminal rectum mucosa of all rectally inoculated sheep in the long term, suggests that E. coli O157:H7 may colonise this site, but less effectively than reported previously for cattle.

Cytoplasmic delivery of antigens, by Bacillus subtilis enhances Th1 responses.

Endospores of the Gram-positive bacterium, Bacillus subtilis, have been used successfully for delivery of antigens where the immunogen is expressed on the spore surface. In this work the spore has been engineered to deliver antigens to the cytoplasm of macrophages by expressing listeriolysin O (LLO) or a derivative, LLO(L461T), that is stable at neutral pH, from the B. subtilis vegetative cell. Following phagocytosis spores were shown to germinate in the phagosome enabling secretion of LLO/LLO(L461T) and entry of the bacterium into the cytosol. We have shown that in the cytosol B. subtilis proliferates before eventually being destroyed. Immunisation of mice with spores that co-expressed LLO with Protective Antigen (PA) of Bacillus anthracis generated an increase in IgG2a against PA, toxin-neutralising activity coupled with specific IFN-gamma and IL-12 (and reduced IL-4) responses of splenocytes, both indicative of an enhanced Th1 response. Enhanced Th1 responses via LLO co-expression of antigen by B. subtilis spores may be a useful strategy to improve vaccine performance.

Poxviral disease in red squirrels Sciurus vulgaris in the UK: spatial and temporal trends of an emerging threat.

The squirrel poxvirus (SQPV) is the probable mediator of apparent competition between the introduced invading gray squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) and the red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris) in the UK, and modeling studies have shown that this viral disease has had a significant impact on the decline of the red squirrel in the UK. However, given our limited understanding of the epidemiology of the disease, and more generally the effects of invasive species on parasite ecology, there is a need to investigate the transmission dynamics and the relative pathogenicity of the virus between species. We aimed to increase our knowledge of these processes through an empirical study in which we: (i) used pathological signs and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to diagnose SQPV disease in red squirrels found dead during scanning surveillance between 1993 and 2005; (ii) detected antibody to SQPV using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in the same animals; and (iii) mapped cases of the disease, and the gray squirrel distribution, using a geographical information system. We analyzed the distribution of cases of SQPV disease according to woodland type, a measure of squirrel density. SQPV disease occurred only in areas of England also inhabited by seropositive gray squirrels, and as the geographical range of gray squirrels expanded, SQPV disease occurred in these new gray squirrel habitats, supporting a role for the gray squirrel as a reservoir host of the virus. There was a delay between the establishment of invading gray squirrels and cases of the disease in red squirrels which implies gray squirrels must reach a threshold number or density before the virus is transmitted to red squirrels. The spatial and temporal trend in SQPV disease outbreaks suggested that SQPV disease will have a significant effect on Scottish populations of red squirrels within 25 years. The even spread of cases of disease across months suggested a direct rather than vector-borne transmission route is more likely. Eight juvenile and sub-adult free-living red squirrels apparently survived exposure to SQPV by mounting an immune response, the first evidence of immunity to SQPV in free-living red squirrels, which possibly suggests a changing host-parasite relationship and that the use of a vaccine may be an effective management tool to protect remnant red squirrel populations.

The role of type 1 and curli fimbriae of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli in adherence to abiotic surfaces.

Biofilm formation on abiotic surfaces may provide a source of microbial contamination and may also enhance microbial environmental survival. The role of fimbrial expression by Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) in biofilm formation is poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate the role of STEC type 1 and curli fimbriae in adhesion to and biofilm formation on abiotic surfaces. None of 13 O157:H7 isolates expressed either fimbrial type whereas 11 of 13 and 5 of 13 non-O157 STEC elaborated type 1 fimbriae and curli fimbriae, respectively. Mutants made by allelic exchange of a diarrhoeal non-O157 STEC isolate, O128:H2 (E41509), unable to elaborate type 1 and curli fimbriae were made for adherence and biofilm assays. Elaboration of type 1 fimbriae was necessary for the adhesion to abiotic surfaces whereas curliation was associated with both adherence and subsequent biofilm formation. STEC O157:H7 adhered to thermanox and glass but poorly to polystyrene. Additionally, STEC O157:H7 failed to form biofilms. These data indicate that certain STEC isolates are able to form biofilms and that the elaboration of curli fimbriae may enhance biofilm formation leading to possible long-term survival and a potential source of human infection.