Quantifying Older Black Americans' Exposure to Structural Racial Discrimination: How Can We Measure the Water In Which We Swim?

The USA was built on legalized racism that started with enslavement and continues in the form of structural racial discrimination. This discrimination is difficult to measure because its many manifestations are hard to observe and dynamic. A useful tool would measure across settings, institutions, time periods in a person's life and the country's history. The purpose of this study was to design a measure of structural racial discrimination that meets those criteria and can be used in large national datasets. To do this, we started with an exploratory mixed-methods instrument design, including qualitative interviews with 15 older Black adults and focus groups with 38 discrimination researchers and other key stakeholders. We then identified 27 indicators of structural racial discrimination across nine theorized discrimination contexts. We matched these with historical administrative data sets to develop an instrument that could quantify older Black Americans' exposure to structural racial discrimination across contexts, the life course, and geographies. These can be mapped to the life course of structural discrimination based on the home addresses of those surveyed. Linking these to available indicators is a promising approach. It is a low burden for participants and enables increasingly multifaceted and focused measurement as more national datasets become available. A flexible, feasible comprehensive measure of structural discrimination could allow not only more thorough documentation of inequities but also allow informed decision making about policies and programs intended to promote racial equity. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: To our knowledge, this is the first study that presents a framework for assessing structural racial discrimination across contexts, life course, and geography that is grounded in theory and in the lived experience of intended participants. Leading researchers and policy makers have called for improved measures of structural racism and discrimination and specifically for a lifecourse approach to measurement. This study is a step in that direction. CLASSIFICATION: Social Sciences.

Climate change, uncertainty and allostatic load.

CONTEXT: Humans constantly respond to environmental stressors challenging their somatic stability. Allostasis, an evolved neuroendocrine/physiological stressor response system, is our main pathway for doing so. Effective allostasis returns somatic systems to their current optima; over a lifetime of stressor responses, related systems fail, effectiveness declines, and physiological dysregulation (i.e. allostatic load) increases. Global Climate Change (GCC) multiplies environmental stressors on human populations and is likely to increase allostatic load. OBJECTIVES: As a population-level stressor, GCC increases risks for multiple stressors, including sociocultural instability and food and water insecurity, while also motivating migration. We predict GCC increases risk for elevated allostatic load. Here, we review pathways by which GCC increases climatic and social stressors contributing to greater stress and allostatic load. METHODS: Based upon published sources and primary ethnographic case studies, this review examines how GCC, by multiplying climate-related stressors, likely increases social instability, food and water insecurity, and migration. Thereby, it is proposed that GCC contributes to allostatic load. RESULTS: GCC multiplies stressors on local populations. Those experiencing social insecurity related to GCC during growth and development are expected to show the largest influences on their lifetime allostatic load. Similarly, as GCC increases food and water insecurity, it likely will increase allostatic load in those affected and is likely to propel migrants to seek improved living circumstances. These stressors may be continued among their descendants via historical trauma or epigenetic responses. CONCLUSION: GCC accentuates effects of environmental and sociocultural stressors on human populations. Those exposed to GCC are likely to show lifelong elevated allostatic load.

[Burden, access, and disparities in kidney disease].

For the World Kidney Day Steering Committee Kidney disease is a global public health problem that affects more than 750 million persons worldwide. The burden of kidney disease varies substantially across the world, as does its detection and treatment. Although the magnitude and impact of kidney disease is better defined in developed countries, emerging evidence suggests that developing countries have a similar or even greater kidney disease burden. In many settings, rates of kidney disease and the provision of its care are defined by socioeconomic, cultural, and political factors, leading to significant disparities in disease burden, even in developed countries. These disparities exist across the spectrum of kidney disease - from preventive efforts to curb development of acute kidney injury or chronic kidney disease, to screening for kidney disease among persons at high risk, to access to subspecialty care and treatment of kidney failure with renal replacement therapy. World Kidney Day 2019 offers an opportunity to raise awareness of kidney disease and highlight disparities in its burden and current state of global capacity for prevention and management. In this editorial, we highlight these disparities and emphasize the role of public policies and organizational structures in addressing them. We outline opportunities to improve our understanding of disparities in kidney disease, the best ways for them to be addressed, and how to streamline efforts toward achieving kidney health equity across the globe.

The association between a single bout of moderate physical activity and executive function in young adults with Down syndrome: a preliminary study.

BACKGROUND: This study was aimed at investigating the impact of a single exercise intervention on executive function in young adults with Down syndrome (DS). METHODS: Considering the relations among executive function, physical and mental health and early onset of Alzheimer's disease in this population, we tested three components of executive function (e.g. choice-response time, attention shifting and inhibition) that have been shown to be impaired in previous studies. Ten persons with DS were assigned to an exercise group, who walked on a treadmill for 20 min at moderate intensity and ten additional persons with DS were assigned to an attentional control group, who watched a video. Measures of executive function were tested pre and post interventions. RESULTS: These results showed non-significant improvements in choice-response time (P = 0.32) and attention shifting (P = 0.13) but a statistically significant improvement in inhibition (P = 0.03) after the exercise intervention. CONCLUSIONS: Given the improved inhibition ability, exercise may be an effective intervention, even in a signal session. However, only a few studies have focused on this topic. Based on theoretical models linking exercise to executive function, we proposed that exercise may increase arousal status or enhance neural transmission. Hence, future work is needed to examine the exact mechanism in the relationship between exercise and executive function for individuals with DS.

Cluster and meta-analyses of genetic parameters for feed intake traits in growing beef cattle.

A data set based on 50 studies including feed intake and utilization traits was used to perform a meta-analysis to obtain pooled estimates using the variance between studies of genetic parameters for average daily gain (ADG); residual feed intake (RFI); metabolic body weight (MBW); feed conversion ratio (FCR); and daily dry matter intake (DMI) in beef cattle. The total data set included 128 heritability and 122 genetic correlation estimates published in the literature from 1961 to 2012. The meta-analysis was performed using a random effects model where the restricted maximum likelihood estimator was used to evaluate variances among clusters. Also, a meta-analysis using the method of cluster analysis was used to group the heritability estimates. Two clusters were obtained for each trait by different variables. It was observed, for all traits, that the heterogeneity of variance was significant between clusters and studies for genetic correlation estimates. The pooled estimates, adding the variance between clusters, for direct heritability estimates for ADG, DMI, RFI, MBW and FCR were 0.32 ± 0.04, 0.39 ± 0.03, 0.31 ± 0.02, 0.31 ± 0.03 and 0.26 ± 0.03, respectively. Pooled genetic correlation estimates ranged from -0.15 to 0.67 among ADG, DMI, RFI, MBW and FCR. These pooled estimates of genetic parameters could be used to solve genetic prediction equations in populations where data is insufficient for variance component estimation. Cluster analysis is recommended as a statistical procedure to combine results from different studies to account for heterogeneity.

Segregating variation for temperature-dependent sex determination in a lizard.

Temperature-dependent sex determination (TSD) was first reported in 1966 in an African lizard. It has since been shown that TSD occurs in some fish, several lizards, tuataras, numerous turtles and all crocodilians. Extreme temperatures can also cause sex reversal in several amphibians and lizards with genotypic sex determination. Research in TSD species indicates that estrogen signaling is important for ovary development and that orthologs of mammalian genes have a function in gonad differentiation. Nevertheless, the mechanism that actually transduces temperature into a biological signal for ovary versus testis development is not known in any species. Classical genetics could be used to identify the loci underlying TSD, but only if there is segregating variation for TSD. Here, we use the 'animal model' to analyze inheritance of sexual phenotype in a 13-generation pedigree of captive leopard geckos, Eublepharis macularius, a TSD reptile. We directly show genetic variance and genotype-by-temperature interactions for sex determination. Additive genetic variation was significant at a temperature that produces a female-biased sex ratio (30°C), but not at a temperature that produces a male-biased sex ratio (32.5°C). Conversely, dominance variance was significant at the male-biased temperature (32.5°C), but not at the female-biased temperature (30°C). Non-genetic maternal effects on sex determination were negligible in comparison with additive genetic variance, dominance variance and the primary effect of temperature. These data show for the first time that there is segregating variation for TSD in a reptile and consequently that a quantitative trait locus analysis would be practicable for identifying the genes underlying TSD.

Genetic analysis of longitudinal data in beef cattle: a review.

Currently, many different data types are collected by beef cattle breed associations for the purpose of genetic evaluation. These data points are all biological characteristics of individual animals that can be measured multiple times over an animal's lifetime. Some traits can only be measured once on an individual animal, whereas others, such as the body weight of an animal as it grows, can be measured many times. Data such as growth has been often referred to as "longitudinal" or "infinite-dimensional" since it is theoretically possible to observe the trait an infinite number of times over the life span of a given individual. Analysis of such data is not without its challenges, and as a result many different methods have been or are beginning to be implemented in the genetic analysis of beef cattle data, each an improvement over its predecessor. These methods of analysis range from the classic repeated measures to the more contemporary suite of random regressions that use covariance functions or even splines as their base function. Each of the approaches has both strengths and weaknesses in the analysis of longitudinal data. Here we summarize past and current genetic evaluation technology for analyzing this type of data and review some emerging technologies beginning to be implemented in national cattle evaluation schemes, along with their potential implications for the beef industry.

Hemipenile Preference: Stimulus Control of Male Mounting Behavior in the Lizard Anolis carolinensis.

The urogenital system of squamate reptiles is represented by separate, bilaterally symmetrical tracts. Males alternate in their use of the right and left hemipenes. Sensory feedback from the hemipenis and, to a lesser extent, from the ipsilateral testis is important in determining which hemipenis the male will use for mating.

Female sex pheromone in the skin and circulation of a garter snake.

Serums and extracts of tissues from the female garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis) each act as a pheromone and elicit male courtship behavior when applied to the back of another male. Since pheromonal activity is present in yolk and liver tissue of untreated females and can be induced with estrogen treatment in the serums and livers of males, the pheromone may be associated with the circulating yolk lipoprotein, vitellogenin.

Evolution of mechanisms controlling mating behavior.

The proximate mechanisms underlying mating behavior in naturally occurring species can be fundamentally different from those in more commonly studied laboratory and domesticated forms. In naturally occurring species, reproductive strategies are much more diverse, and mechanisms controlling behavior are correspondingly diverse. A variety of hormonal, environmental, and social cues can be used to activate mating behavior. Which cues are used by particular species depends on differences in environmental and physiological constraints imposed by particular reproductive strategies. Study of this diversity of mechanisms promises to identify specific selective forces that have shaped their evolution. This evolutionary perspective leads to widely applicable generalizations and provides a useful context within which to conceptualize differences between species, populations, and individuals.

Behavioral facilitation of reproduction in sexual and parthenogenetic Drosophila.

In a normal bisexual laboratory strain of Drosophila mercatorum, females housed with either fertile or sterile males lay more eggs than do females housed in pairs or as isolates. Females of a derived parthenogenetic strain have suffered genetic loss of this behavioral facilitation of egg production, a loss comparable to the loss of sexual receptivity. Despite these losses there has been a large increase in fecundity in the parthenogenetic strain. These findings are compared with those in a parthenogenetic lizard.

Sex pheromones in snakes.

The majority of pheromones identified to date are insect pheromones, which are volatile in nature. Identification of nonvolatile pheromones have been relatively rare, especially in vertebrates. Male and female garter snakes use pheromones to mediate sexual behavior. The female sex attractiveness pheromone of the Canadian red-sided garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis parietalis, consists of a novel series of nonvolatile saturated and monounsaturated long-chain methyl ketones, whereas the male sex recognition pheromone contains squalene. These compounds were isolated, identified, and partially synthesized, and field tests show them to be biologically active.

Association analyses of a SNP in the promoter of IGF1 with fat deposition and carcass merit traits in hybrid, Angus and Charolais beef cattle.

A SNP in the promoter region of insulin like growth factor-1 (IGF1) (c.-512C>T) was analysed for associations with 10 fat deposition and carcass merit traits in hybrid (n = 455), Angus (n = 204) and Charolais (n = 186) beef cattle populations. Significant associations of the SNP were found for ultrasound backfat thickness (P = 0.030), carcass average backfat (P = 0.015) and carcass lean meat yield (LMY) (P = 0.023) in the Angus beef population, with the 'CC' genotype showing higher fat depth and lower LMY than the 'TT' genotype. Analyses of transcription factor binding sites based on transcription element search system prediction revealed that the 'C' allele introduces a binding site for nuclear factor I, which has an adipose tissue-specific regulatory role and thus may contribute to the SNP effect on fat deposition in the population of pure Angus cattle, a breed with greater fat depth than the hybrid and Charolais breeds.

Burden, access, and disparities in kidney disease.

This article was published in Kidney International volume 95, pages 242-248, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kint.2018.11.007, Copyright World Kidney Day 2019 Steering Committee (2019) and is reprinted concurrently in several journals. The articles cover identical concepts and wording, but vary in minor stylistic and spelling changes, detail, and length of manuscript in keeping with each journal's style. Any of these versions may be used in citing this article. Note that all authors contributed equally to the conception, preparation, and editing of the manuscript. Kidney disease is a global public health problem, affecting over 750 million persons worldwide. The burden of kidney disease varies substantially across the world, as does its detection and treatment. In many settings, rates of kidney disease and the provision of its care are defined by socio-economic, cultural, and political factors leading to significant disparities. World Kidney Day 2019 offers an opportunity to raise awareness of kidney disease and highlight disparities in its burden and current state of global capacity for prevention and management. Here, we highlight that many countries still lack access to basic diagnostics, a trained nephrology workforce, universal access to primary health care, and renal replacement therapies. We point to the need for strengthening basic infrastructure for kidney care services for early detection and management of acute kidney injury and chronic kidney disease across all countries and advocate for more pragmatic approaches to providing renal replacement therapies. Achieving universal health coverage worldwide by 2030 is one of the World Health Organization's Sustainable Development Goals. While universal health coverage may not include all elements of kidney care in all countries, understanding what is feasible and important for a country or region with a focus on reducing the burden and consequences of kidney disease would be an important step towards achieving kidney health equity.

Random regression models for the prediction of days to weight, ultrasound rib eye area, and ultrasound back fat depth in beef cattle.

Genetic evaluation research designed to reduce the required days to a specified end point has received very little attention in pertinent scientific literature, given that its economic importance was first discussed in 1957. There are many production scenarios in today's beef industry, making a prediction for the required number of days to a single end point a suboptimal option. Random regression is an attractive alternative to calculate days to weight (DTW), days to ultrasound back fat (DTUBF), and days to ultrasound rib eye area (DTUREA) genetic predictions that could overcome weaknesses of a single end point prediction. The objective of this study was to develop random regression approaches for the prediction of the DTW, DTUREA, and DTUBF. Data were obtained from the Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Research Centre, Lethbridge, AB, Canada. Data consisted of records on 1,324 feedlot cattle spanning 1999 to 2007. Individual animals averaged 5.77 observations with weights, ultrasound rib eye area (UREA), ultrasound back fat depth (UBF), and ages ranging from 293 to 863 kg, 73.39 to 129.54 cm, 1.53 to 30.47 mm, and 276 to 519 d, respectively. Random regression models using Legendre polynomials were used to regress age of the individual on weight, UREA, and UBF. Fixed effects in the model included an overall fixed regression of age on end point (weight, UREA, and UBF) nested within breed to account for the mean relationship between age and weight as well as a contemporary group effect consisting of breed of the animal (Angus, Charolais, and Charolais sired), feedlot pen, and year of measure. Likelihood ratio tests were used to determine the appropriate random polynomial order. Use of the quadratic polynomial did not account for any additional genetic variation in days for DTW ( > 0.11), for DTUREA ( > 0.18), and for DTUBF ( > 0.20) when compared with the linear random polynomial. Heritability estimates from the linear random regression for DTW ranged from 0.54 to 0.74, corresponding to end points of 293 and 863 kg, respectively. Heritability for DTUREA ranged from 0.51 to 0.34 and for DTUBF ranged from 0.55 to 0.37. These estimates correspond to UREA end points of 35 and 125 cm and UBF end points of 1.53 and 30 mm, respectively. This range of heritability shows DTW, DTUREA, and DTUBF to be highly heritable and indicates that selection pressure aimed at reducing the number of days to reach a finish weight end point can result in genetic change given sufficient data.

Genetic and phenotypic correlations among feed efficiency, production and selected conformation traits in dairy cows.

The difficulties and costs of measuring individual feed intake in dairy cattle are the primary factors limiting the genetic study of feed intake and utilisation, and hence the potential of their subsequent industry-wide applications. However, indirect selection based on heritable, easily measurable, and genetically correlated traits, such as conformation traits, may be an alternative approach to improve feed efficiency. The aim of this study was to estimate genetic and phenotypic correlations among feed intake, production, and feed efficiency traits (particularly residual feed intake; RFI) with routinely recorded conformation traits. A total of 496 repeated records from 260 Holstein dairy cows in different lactations (260, 159 and 77 from first, second and third lactation, respectively) were considered in this study. Individual daily feed intake and monthly BW and body condition scores of these animals were recorded from 5 to 305 days in milk within each lactation from June 2007 to July 2013. Milk yield and composition data of all animals within each lactation were retrieved, and the first lactation conformation traits for primiparous animals were extracted from databases. Individual RFI over 301 days was estimated using linear regression of total 301 days actual energy intake on a total of 301 days estimated traits of metabolic BW, milk production energy requirement, and empty BW change. Pair-wise bivariate animal models were used to estimate genetic and phenotypic parameters among the studied traits. Estimated heritabilities of total intake and production traits ranged from 0.27±0.07 for lactation actual energy intake to 0.45±0.08 for average body condition score over 301 days of the lactation period. RFI showed a moderate heritability estimate (0.20±0.03) and non-significant phenotypic and genetic correlations with lactation 3.5 % fat-corrected milk and average BW over lactation. Among the conformation traits, dairy strength, stature, rear attachment width, chest width and pin width had significant (P<0.05) moderate to strong genetic correlations with RFI. Combinations of these conformation traits could be used as RFI indicators in the dairy genetic improvement programmes to increase the accuracy of the genetic evaluation of feed intake and utilisation included in the index.

The distributions of the duplicate oestrogen receptors ER-beta a and ER-beta b in the forebrain of the Atlantic croaker (Micropogonias undulatus): evidence for subfunctionalization after gene duplication.

Teleost fishes have three distinct oestrogen receptor (ER) subtypes: ER-alpha, ER-beta a (or ER-gamma) and ER-beta b. ER-beta a and ER-beta b arose from a duplication of an ancestral ER-beta gene early in the teleost lineage. Here, we describe the distribution of the three ER mRNAs in the hypothalamus and cerebellum of the Atlantic croaker to address two issues: the specific functions of multiple ERs in the neuroendocrine system and the evolution and fate of duplicated genes. ER-alpha was detected in nuclei of the preoptic area (POA) and hypothalamus previously shown to possess ER-alphas in teleosts. AcER-beta b, but not ER-beta a, labelling was detected in the magnocellular neurons of the POA, nucleus posterior tuberis, the nucleus recessus posterior and cerebellum. By contrast, acER-beta a, but not ER-beta b, was detected in the dorsal anterior parvocellular POA and suprachiasmatic nucleus. Both ER-betas were found in posterior parvocellular and ventral anterior POA nuclei, the ventral hypothalamus, and periventricular dorsal hypothalamus. The differences we observed in ER subtype mRNA distribution within well-characterized brain nuclei suggest that ER-beta a and ER-beta b have distinct functions in the neuroendocrine control of reproduction and behaviour, and provide evidence that the teleost ER-beta paralogues have partitioned functions of the ancestral ER-beta gene they shared with tetrapods.

Comparative neuroendocrinology of steroid receptor gene expression and regulation: Relationship to physiology and behavior.

Great diversity exists among vertebrates in reproductive behaviors and the neuroendocrine mechanisms underlying these behaviors. Comparisons of species with different hormone-brain-behavior relationships reveal three factors which may explain species differences in endocrine physiology and behavior: (a) sensitivity to sex steroid hormones, (b) hormone-dependent regulation of sex steroid hormone receptor gene expression, and (c) neuroanatomical distribution of steroid receptor gene expression, especially in nonlimbic structures.