Are the school prevention programmes - aimed at de-normalizing smoking among youths - beneficial in the long term? An example from the Smoke Free Class Competition in Italy.

Tobacco smoking by young people is of great concern because it usually leads to regular smoking, nicotine addiction and quitting difficulties. Young people "hooked" by tobacco maintain the profits of the tobacco industry by replacing smokers who quit or die. If new generations could be tobacco-free, as supported by tobacco endgame strategies, the tobacco epidemic could end within decades. Smoking prevention programmes for teens are offered by schools with the aim to prevent or delay smoking onset. Among these, the Smoke Free Class Competition (SFC) was widely implemented in Europe. Its effectiveness yielded conflicting results, but it was only evaluated at short/medium term (6 - 18 months). The aim of this study is to evaluate its effectiveness after a longer follow-up (3 to 5 years) in order to allow enough time for the maturing of the students and the internalization of the experience and its contents. Fifteen classes were randomly sampled from two Italian high schools of Bologna province that regularly offered the SFC to first year students; 382 students (174 participating in the SFC and 208 controls) were retrospectively followed-up and provided their "smoking histories". At the end of their last year of school (after 5 years from the SFC), the percentage of students who stated that they were regular smokers was lower among the SFC students than in controls: 13.5% vs 32.9% (p=0.03). From the students' "smoking histories", statistically significant protective ORs were observed for SFC students at the end of 1st and 5th year: 0.42 (95% CI 0.19-0.93) and 0.32 (95% CI 0.11-0.91) respectively. Absence of smokers in the family was also a strongly statistically significant factor associated with being a non-smoker student. These results suggest that SFC may have a positive impact on lowering the prevalence of smoking in the long term (5 years).

Regulation of group II metabotropic glutamate receptors by G protein-coupled receptor kinases: mGlu2 receptors are resistant to homologous desensitization.

We examined the regulation of mGlu2 and mGlu3 metabotropic glutamate receptor signaling prompted by the emerging role of these receptor subtypes as therapeutic targets for psychiatric disorders, such as anxiety and schizophrenia. In transfected human embryonic kidney 293 cells, G-protein-coupled receptor kinase (GRK) 2 and GRK3 fully desensitized the agonist-dependent inhibition of cAMP formation mediated by mGlu3 receptors. In contrast, GRK2 or other GRKs did not desensitize the cAMP response to mGlu2 receptor activation. Desensitization of mGlu3 receptors by GRK2 required an intact kinase activity, as shown by the use of the kinase-dead mutant GRK2-K220R or the recombinant GRK2 C-terminal domain. Overexpression of beta-arrestin1 also desensitized mGlu3 receptors and did not affect the cAMP signaling mediated by mGlu2 receptors. The difference in the regulation of mGlu2 and mGlu3 receptors was signal-dependent because GRK2 desensitized the activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway mediated by both mGlu2 and mGlu3 receptors. In vivo studies confirmed the resistance of mGlu2 receptor-mediated cAMP signaling to homologous desensitization. Wild-type, mGlu2(-/-), or mGlu3(-/-) mice were treated intraperitoneally with saline or the mixed mGlu2/3 receptor agonist (-)-2-oxa-4-aminobicyclo[3.1.0]-exhane-4,6-dicarboxylic acid (LY379268; 1 mg/kg) once daily for 7 days. Inhibition of forskolin-stimulated cAMP formation by LY379268 was measured in cortical slices prepared 24 h after the last injection. Agonist pretreatment fully desensitized the cAMP response in wild-type and mGlu2(-/-) mice but had no effect in mGlu3(-/-) mice, in which LY379268 could only activate the mGlu2 receptor. We predict the lack of tolerance when mixed mGlu2/3 receptor agonists or selective mGlu2 enhancers are used continually in patients.

Expression of G protein-coupled receptor kinase 4 is associated with breast cancer tumourigenesis.

G-protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) comprise a family of seven mammalian serine/threonine protein kinases that phosphorylate and regulate agonist-bound, activated, G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). GRKs and beta-arrestins are key participants in the canonical pathways leading to phosphorylation-dependent GPCR desensitization, endocytosis, intracellular trafficking and resensitization. Here we show that GRK4 isoforms are expressed in human breast cancer but not in normal epithelia. In addition, GRK4-over-expressing cells activated the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) mediated by ERK 1/2 and JNK phosphorylation in breast cancer-derived cell lines. Furthermore, suppression of beta-arrestins decreased GRK4-stimulated ERK 1/2 or JNK phosphorylations. These data indicate that high-level expression of GRK4 may activate MAPK signalling pathways mediated by beta-arrestins in breast cancer cells, suggesting that GRK4 may be implicated in breast cancer carcinogenesis.

Regulation of G protein-coupled receptor kinase subtypes in activated T lymphocytes. Selective increase of beta-adrenergic receptor kinase 1 and 2.

Beta-adrenergic receptor kinase (beta ARK) is a serine-threonine kinase involved in the process of homologous desensitization of G-coupled receptors. beta ARK is a member of a multigene family, consisting of six known subtypes, also named G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRK 1-6). In this study we investigated the expression of GRKs during the process of T cell activation, which is of fundamental importance in regulating immune responses. T cell activation was induced by exposing mononuclear leukocytes (MNL) to PHA and confirmed by tritiated thymidine incorporation measurement. A substantial increase of GRK activity (as measured by in vitro phosphorylation of rhodopsin) was found after 48 h (331 +/- 80% of controls) and 72 h (347 +/- 86% of controls) of exposure to PHA. A threefold increase of beta ARK1 immunoreactivity was found in MNL exposed to PHA for 72 h. Persistent activation of protein kinase C (PKC) by 10 nM 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) was able to increase beta ARK activity to the same extent as PHA, suggesting a PKC-mediated mechanism. The kinetic of beta-adrenergic-stimulated cAMP production was substantially modified in TPA and PHA-activated cells, indicating that the increased GRK activity resulted in an increased beta-adrenergic homologous desensitization. A three- to fourfold increase in GRK activity was also observed in a population of T cell blasts (> 97% CD3+) exposed to PHA for 48-72 h. A significant increase in beta ARK1 and beta ARK2 mRNA expression was observed 48 h after mitogen stimulation, while mRNA expression of GRK5 and GRK6 was not changed. In conclusion our data show that the expression of GRK subtypes is actively and selectively modulated according to the functional state of T lymphocytes.

Endogenous activation of group-I metabotropic glutamate receptors is required for differentiation and survival of cerebellar Purkinje cells.

We have applied subtype-selective antagonists of metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors mGlu1 or mGlu5 [7-(hydroxy-imino) cyclopropa[b]chromen-1a-carboxylate ethyl ester (CPCCOEt) or 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine (MPEP)] to mixed rat cerebellar cultures containing both Purkinje and granule cells. The action of these two drugs on neuronal survival was cell specific. Although CPCCOEt (1, 10, 30 microm) reduced the survival of Purkinje cells, MPEP (3 or 30 microm) selectively reduced the survival of granule cells. Both effects required an early exposure of cultures to antagonists [from 3 to 6 d in vitro (DIV) for CPCCOEt, and from 3 to 6 or 6 to 9 DIV for MPEP]. Addition of MPEP from 6 to 9, 9 to 13, or 13 to 17 DIV also induced profound morphological changes in the dendritic tree and dendritic spines of Purkinje cells, suggesting that endogenous activation of mGlu5 receptors is required for the age-dependent refinement of Purkinje cell phenotype. In in vivo studies, an early blockade of mGlu1 receptors induced in rats by local injections of LY367385 (20 nmol/2 microl), local injections of mGlu1 antisense oligonucleotides (12 nmol/2 microl), or systemic administration of CPCCOEt (5 mg/kg, s.c.) from postnatal day (P) 3 to P9 reduced the number and dramatically altered the morphology of cerebellar Purkinje cells. In contrast, mGlu5 receptor blockade induced by local injections of antisense oligonucleotides reduced the number of granule cells but also produced substantial morphological changes in the dendritic tree of Purkinje cells. These results provide the first evidence that the development of cerebellar neurons is under the control of mGlu1 and mGlu5 receptors, i.e., the two mGlu receptor subtypes coupled to polyphosphoinositide hydrolysis.

Two subpopulations of alpha 1-adrenergic receptors with high and low affinity for agonists: short-term exposure to agonists reduced the high-affinity sites.

Short-term receptor regulation by agonists is a well-known phenomenon for a number of receptors, including beta-adrenergic receptors, and has been associated with receptor changes revealed by radioligand binding. In the present study, we investigated the rapid changes in alpha 1-adrenergic receptors induced by agonists. alpha 1-receptors were studied on DDT1 MF-2 smooth muscle cells (DDT1-MF-2 cells) by specific [3H]prazosin binding. In competition binding on membranes and on intact cells at 4 degrees C or at 37 degrees C in 1-min assays, agonists competed for a single class of sites with relatively high affinity. By contrast, in equilibrium binding at 37 degrees C on intact cells agonists competed with two receptor forms (high- and low-affinity). We quantified the receptors in the high-affinity form by measuring the [3H]prazosin binding inhibited by 20 microM norepinephrine (this concentration selectively saturated the high-affinity sites). The low-affinity sites were measured by subtracting the binding of [3H]prazosin to the high-affinity sites from the total specific binding. High-affinity receptors were 85% of the total sites in binding experiments at 4 degrees C, but only 30% at 37 degrees C. On DDT1-MF-2 cells preequilibrated with [3H]prazosin at 4 degrees C, and then shifted to 37 degrees C for a few minutes, norepinephrine selectively reduced the high-affinity sites by 30%. We suggest that at 4 degrees C it is the native form of alpha 1-receptors that is measured, with most of the sites in the high-affinity form, while during incubation at 37 degrees C the norepinephrine present in the binding assay converts most of the receptors to an apparent low-affinity form, so that they are no longer recognized by 20 microM norepinephrine. The nature of this low-affinity form was further investigated. On DDT1-MF-2 cells preincubated with the agonist and then extensively washed at 4 degrees C (to maintain the receptor changes induced by the agonist) the number of receptors recognized by [3H]prazosin at 4 degrees C was reduced by 38%. After fragmentation of the cells, the number of receptors measured at 4 degrees C was the same in control and norepinephrine-treated cells, suggesting that the disruption of cellular integrity might expose the receptors which are probably sequestered after agonist treatment. In conclusion, the appearance of the low affinity for agonists at 37 degrees C may be due to the agonist-induced sequestration of alpha 1-adrenergic receptors, resulting in a limited accessibility to hydrophilic ligands.

Low affinity of beta-adrenergic receptors for agonists on intact cells is not due to receptor sequestration.

The low affinity of beta-adrenergic receptors for agonists described on intact cells at 37 degrees C has usually been interpreted in terms of reduced accessibility of agonists (which are usually hydrophilic) for sequestered receptors. We challenged this hypothesis by eliminating the plasma membrane barrier with low doses of the detergent digitonin. In human mononuclear leukocytes (MNL) permeabilized with digitonin, sequestered receptors became accessible to hydrophilic ligands such as agonists, but the affinity was still low. Then we investigated the relationship between low affinity agonist binding and sequestration using concanavalin A, which blocks sequestration. Even when sequestration was blocked, the affinity of the beta-adrenergic receptors for agonists was low. We conclude that: (a) low affinity agonist binding is independent of receptor sequestration; (b) the receptors which undergo conformational change are those that are sequestered; (c) the low affinity appears before sequestration occurs. This receptor conformational change could be the first step in agonist-induced desensitization.

Regulation of G protein-coupled receptor kinase subtypes by calcium sensor proteins.

G protein-coupled receptor homologous desensitization is intrinsically related to the function of a class of S/T kinases named G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRK). The GRK family is composed of six cloned members, named GRK1 to 6. Studies from different laboratories have demonstrated that different calcium sensor proteins (CSP) can selectively regulate the activity of GRK subtypes. In the presence of calcium, rhodopsin kinase (GRK1) is inhibited by the photoreceptor-specific CSP recoverin through direct binding. Several other recoverin homologues (including NCS 1, VILIP 1 and hippocalcin) are also able to inhibit GRK1. The ubiquitous calcium-binding protein calmodulin (CaM) can inhibit GRK5 with a high affinity (IC(50)=40-50 nM). A direct interaction between GRK5 and Ca(2+)/CaM was documented and this binding does not influence the catalytic activity of the kinase, but rather reduced GRK5 binding to the membrane. These studies suggest that CSP act as functional analogues in mediating the regulation of different GRK subtypes by Ca(2+). This mechanism is, however, highly selective with respect to the GRK subtypes: while GRK1, but not GRK2 and GRK5, is regulated by recoverin and other NCS, GRK4, 5 and 6, that belong to the GRK4 subfamily, are potently inhibited by CaM, which had little or no effect on members of other GRK subfamilies.

G protein-coupled receptors: heterologous regulation of homologous desensitization and its implications.

Two patterns of rapid desensitization have been characterized for G protein-coupled receptors: homologous desensitization, which mainly involves G protein-coupled receptor kinases and arrestins, and heterologous desensitization, which mainly involves protein kinases A (PKA) and C (PKC). In this review, Tsu Tshen Chuang and colleagues discuss evidence to show that PKA and PKC can modify the functional state of the G protein-coupled receptor kinases/arrestin homologous desensitization machinery, providing a novel level of cross-talk in signal transduction. Studies on regulation of G protein-coupled receptor kinases and arrestins confirm that the functional state of this machinery may have important consequences for cellular responsiveness and may represent new targets for therapeutic strategies.

Role of 5-HT(2C) receptors in the control of central dopamine function.

Substantial evidence suggests that the functional status of the mesocorticolimbic dopamine (DA) system originating in the ventral tegmental area is under a phasic and tonic inhibitory control by the 5-HT system that acts by stimulating 5-HT(2C) receptor subtypes. Indeed, electrophysiological and biochemical data demonstrate that 5-HT(2C) receptor agonists decrease, whereas 5-HT(2C) receptor antagonists enhance, mesocorticolimbic DA function. However, 5-HT(2C) receptors do not appear to play a relevant role in the control of the nigrostriatal DA system originating in the substantia nigra pars compacta. In this article, the role of 5-HT(2C) receptors in the control of brain DA function will be reviewed, and the search for new therapies for neuropsychiatric disorders, such as depression, schizophrenia and drug addiction, based on these findings will be discussed.

Molecular determinants of metabotropic glutamate receptor signaling.

Metabotropic glutamate (mglu) receptors are implicated in the regulation of many physiological and pathological processes in the CNS, including synaptic plasticity, learning and memory, motor coordination, pain transmission and neurodegeneration. Several recent studies have elucidated the molecular determinants of mglu receptor signaling and show that several mechanisms acting at different steps in signal propagation are involved. We attempt to offer an integrated view on how homologous and heterologous mechanisms regulate the initial steps of signal propagation, mainly at the level of mglu-receptor-G-protein coupling. Particular emphasis is placed on the role of phosphorylation mechanisms mediated by protein kinase C and G-protein-coupled receptor kinases, and on the emerging importance of some members of the regulators of G-protein signaling family, such as RGS2 and RGS4, which facilitate the GTPase activity that is intrinsic to the alpha-subunits of G(q) and G(i).

GRK2 and beta-arrestin 1 as negative regulators of thyrotropin receptor-stimulated response.

Arrestins are regulatory proteins for a number of G-coupled receptors. The binding of arrestin to receptor phosphorylated by G protein-coupled receptor kinase (GRK) quenches the activation of the G protein, thus resulting in receptor homologous desensitization. We have previously shown that the levels of beta-arrestin1 are regulated by intracellular cAMP and proposed that this may represent one homeostatic mechanism with which to regulate some cellular responses. To test this hypothesis, we focused on the TSH receptor using a rat thyroid cell line, FRTL5. We found that beta-arrestin1 is the only detectable isoform of arrestin expressed in FRTL5 and that its expression is regulated by TSH. To investigate the possible role of GRK2/beta-arrestin1 machinery in the mechanism of TSH receptor homologous desensitization, we used a cotransfection approach. The TSH-induced cAMP accumulation in COS7 cells transfected with TSH receptor was reduced by 35-45% when cotransfected with GRK2 and/or beta-arrestin1, indicating that the TSH receptor can be regulated by a GRK/arrestin mechanism. This raised the hypothesis that TSH increases the levels of beta-arrestin1, which in turn could regulate the TSH stimulation. To test this point a FRTL5-derived cell line overexpressing beta-arrestin1 was generated. In these cells the TSH-stimulated cAMP accumulation and, more importantly, the mitogenic activity were substantially blunted. Our results show that TSH receptor-stimulated cAMP accumulation and cell proliferation can be controlled by a GRK2/beta-arrestin1 mechanism.

Involvement of G protein-coupled receptor kinases and arrestins in desensitization to follicle-stimulating hormone action.

FSH rapidly desensitizes the FSH-receptor (FSH-R) upon binding. Very little information is available concerning the regulatory proteins involved in this process. In the present study, we investigated whether G protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) and arrestins have a role in FSH-R desensitization, using a mouse Ltk 7/12 cell line stably overexpressing the rat FSH-R as a model. We found that these cells, which express GRK2, GRK3, GRK5, and GRK6 as well as beta-arrestins 1 and 2 as detected by RT-PCR and by Western blotting, were rapidly desensitized in the presence of FSH. Overexpression of GRKs and/or beta-arrestins in Ltk 7/12 cells allowed us to demonstrate 1) that GRK2, -3, -5, -6a, and -6b inhibit the FSH-R-mediated signaling (from 71% to 96% of maximal inhibition depending on the kinase, P < 0.001); 2) that beta-arrestins 1 or 2 also decrease the FSH action when overexpressed (80% of maximal inhibition, P < 0.01) whereas dominant negative beta-arrestin 2 [319-418] potentiates it 8-fold (P < 0.001); 3) that beta-arrestins and GRKs (except GRK6a) exert additive inhibition on FSH-induced response; and 4) that FSH-R desensitization depends upon the endogenous expression of GRKs, since there is potentiation of the FSH response (2- to 3-fold, P < 0.05) with antisenses cDNAs for GRK2, -5, and -6, but not GRK3. Our results show that the desensitization of the FSH-induced response involves the GRK/arrestin system.

Agonist-induced redistribution of beta-adrenergic receptors on intact human mononuclear leukocytes: redistributed receptors are nonfunctional.

Incubation of human mononuclear leukocytes (MLN) with isoproterenol rapidly desensitizes beta-adrenergic receptors, i.e. isoproterenol-stimulated cAMP accumulation decreases. This desensitization is accompanied by a redistribution of the receptor into a cellular environment to which hydrophilic compounds have limited access. We found that the total number of beta-receptors [defined as binding of [3H]dihydroalprenolol (DHA) inhibited by 1 microM propranolol] was unchanged in the desensitized MNL. In control MNL, virtually all DHA binding was inhibited by 1 microM CGP-12177, suggesting that all of these receptors are on the cell surface, whereas in desensitized cells, only 33 +/- 2% (mean +/- SEM) of the DHA binding was inhibited by CGP-12177. We quantitated the sequestered receptors by subtracting the number of surface receptors from the total number of receptors. The sequestered receptors were homogeneous, with an affinity for DHA identical to that of surface receptors (Kd, 0.66 +/- 0.12 vs. 0.62 +/- 0.08 nM). The time courses of desensitization and sequestration were identical. The functional status of the sequestered receptors was assessed using the agonist zinterol, which (unlike catecholamines) is quite hydrophobic. Zinterol competed for DHA binding to both sequestered and surface receptors, whereas isoproterenol only competed for binding to the surface receptors. However, cAMP accumulation in desensitized MNL was reduced to the same extent regardless of whether isoproterenol or zinterol was used as the agonist. These results demonstrate that desensitization of intact cells to beta-agonists cannot be attributed to limited accessibility of the sequestered receptors to catecholamines, but, rather, that the sequestered receptors are not functionally coupled to adenylate cyclase.

Metabotropic glutamate receptor subtypes as targets for neuroprotective drugs.

Metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors have been considered as potential targets for neuroprotective drugs, but the lack of specific drugs has limited the development of neuroprotective strategies in experimental models of acute or chronic central nervous system (CNS) disorders. The advent of potent and centrally available subtype-selective ligands has overcome this limitation, leading to an extensive investigation of the role of mGlu receptor subtypes in neurodegeneration during the last 2 years. Examples of these drugs are the noncompetitive mGlu1 receptor antagonists, CPCCOEt and BAY-36-7620; the noncompetitive mGlu5 receptor antagonists, 2-methyl-6-(phenylethynyl)pyridine, SIB-1893, and SIB-1757; and the potent mGlu2/3 receptor agonists, LY354740 and LY379268. Pharmacologic blockade of mGlu1 or mGlu5 receptors or pharmacologic activation of mGlu2/3 or mGlu4/7/8 receptors produces neuroprotection in a variety of in vitro or in vivo models. MGlu1 receptor antagonists are promising drugs for the treatment of brain ischemia or for the prophylaxis of neuronal damage induced by synaptic hyperactivity. MGlu5 receptor antagonists may limit neuronal damage induced by a hyperactivity of N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, because mGlu5 and NMDA receptors are physically and functionally connected in neuronal membranes. A series of observations suggest a potential application of mGlu5 receptor antagonists in chronic neurodegenerative disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Alzheimer disease. MGlu2/3 receptor agonists inhibit glutamate release, but also promote the synthesis and release of neurotrophic factors in astrocytes. These drugs may therefore have a broad application as neuroprotective agents in a variety of CNS disorders. Finally, mGlu4/7/8 receptor agonists potently inhibit glutamate release and have a potential application in seizure disorders. The advantage of all these drugs with respect to NMDA or AMPA receptor agonists derives from the evidence that mGlu receptors do not "mediate," but rather "modulate" excitatory synaptic transmission. Therefore, it can be expected that mGlu receptor ligands are devoid of the undesirable effects resulting from the inhibition of excitatory synaptic transmission, such as sedation or an impairment of learning and memory.

Reduction of beta-adrenergic receptors by tertatolol: an additional mechanism for beta-adrenergic blockade.

Tertatolol is a potent new beta-blocker with no intrinsic sympathomimetic activity or beta 1/beta 2-receptor subtype selectivity. When given at therapeutic doses (5 mg/day) to human subjects it induced a reduction in the beta-adrenergic receptor number measured by 3H-CGP 12177 specific binding, without any change in the affinity on intact lymphocytes. This reduction was seen 7 hours (54%), 24 hours (35%), and 48 hours (30%) after a single drug dose. A similar receptor reduction was observed 7 hours (42%), 24 hours (37%), and 48 hours (15%) after 14 doses of the drug. In parallel, the pharmacologic efficacy of the drug was evident from the reduction in supine and upright heart rates and after submaximal exercise; heart rate was reduced to the same extent after single or repeated drug doses. The reduction of receptor number correlated well with the reduction in heart rate in the supine (P less than 0.001) and upright (P less than 0.01) positions and after exercise (P less than 0.02). In in vitro competitive binding experiments tertatolol was found to be a competitive inhibitor of beta-adrenergic receptors. However, on intact human lymphocytes preincubated with this drug, tertatolol reduced the density of beta-adrenergic receptors. We conclude that tertatolol, besides competitively inhibiting beta-adrenergic receptors, induced a marked and lasting decrease in the beta-adrenergic receptor number. This effect may be important for its beta-blocking effects.

Agonist-induced alpha 1-adrenergic receptor changes. Evidence for receptor sequestration.

Short-term receptor regulation by agonists is a well-known phenomenon for a number of receptors but little is known about the regulation of alpha 1-adrenergic receptors. In the present study we provide evidence of alpha 1-adrenergic receptor changes induced by agonists on DDT1 MF-2 smooth muscle cells. The cells were preincubated with the agonist and receptor changes were investigated in the cells washed free of the agonist. On cells pretreated with norepinephrine the number of receptors recognized by [3H]prazosin at 4 degrees C was reduced by 38%. The receptors were not degraded as the number of sites was the same in control and norepinephrine-treated cells when binding was measured at 37 degrees C. When binding was measured on fragmented membranes (at 4 degrees C), the number of receptors was the same in control and norepinephrine-treated cells, suggesting that the disruption of cellular integrity might expose receptors which are probably sequestered after agonist treatment. We conclude that agonists induced rapid sequestration of receptors on intact DDT cells.

Continuous subcutaneous infusion of apomorphine rescues nigro-striatal dopaminergic terminals following MPTP injection in mice.

Apomorphine has been introduced in the treatment of late-stage Parkinson's Disease (PD). The disadvantage of a short half-life of apomorphine is now overcome by the use of a continuous subcutaneous (s.c.) self-delivering system. We examined whether continuous s.c. infusion of apomorphine rescues nigro-striatal dopaminergic neurons from toxicity induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) in mice. Apomorphine was continuously infused in mice by means of a s.c. minipump that delivered the drug at a rate of 0.5 or 3.15 mg/kg/day. MPTP induced a >80% reduction in striatal dopamine (DA) after one day. DA levels were still substantially reduced one month following MPTP injection, in spite of a partial recovery. Similarly, striatal immunoreactivity for tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine transporter was markedly reduced at this time interval. Continuous s.c. infusion of apomorphine starting 40 h following MPTP injection rescued striatal dopaminergic terminals, as assessed by measurements of DA and its metabolites, as well as TH and DAT immunostaining after one month. The neurorescuing effect was more remarkable at a delivery rate of 3.15 mg/kg/day of apomorphine. In contrast, no rescue was observed when apomorphine was administered as a single daily s.c. bolus of 1 or 5mg/kg starting 40 h following MPTP. We conclude that apomorphine is able to rescue nigro-striatal dopaminergic neurons when continuously delivered at doses that are comparable to those delivered by minipumps in PD patients. These results suggest that continuous s.c. infusion of apomorphine not only relieves the symptoms, but also reduce the ongoing degeneration of nigro-striatal dopaminergic neurons in PD patients.

Pyrimido[5,4-b]indole derivatives. 1. A new class of potent and selective alpha 1 adrenoceptor ligands.

A number of 3-substituted pyrimido[5,4-b]indole-2,4-diones (7-23) were evaluated for their in vitro alpha 1 adrenoceptor affinity by radioligand receptor binding assays. Some compounds bearing a (phenylpiperazinyl)alkyl side chain were potent alpha 1 adrenoceptor ligands. The most active derivative in displacement of [3H]prazosin from rat cortical membranes was 3-[2-[4-(2-methoxyphenyl)piperazin-1-yl]ethyl]pyrimido[5,4-b]indol e- 2,4-dione (10) (Ki = 0.21 nM). Discrete modifications in the structure resulted in higher selectivity (greater than 10,000 times) for alpha 1 than alpha 2, beta 2, and 5HT1A receptors. Some compounds also had affinity for the 5HT1A receptor. The most selective alpha 1 ligand was 3-[2-[4-(2-chlorophenyl)piperazin-1-yl]ethyl]pyrimido[5,4-b)indole - 2,4-dione (13).

The E27 beta2-adrenergic receptor polymorphism reduces the risk of myocardial infarction in dyslipidemic young males.

In the present study we evaluated whether two polymorphisms of beta2-adrenergic receptors (beta2-AR) gene (R16G and Q27E) could modify the risk of myocardial infarction (MI). Using a case-control design, we analyzed the data from 125 male patients who had experienced a first episode of MI before the age of 45 years and 108 male controls matched for age. The allele frequencies for R16G and Q27E were: G16=0.56 and E27=0.36 in patients with MI and G16=0.61 and E27=0.42 in the control group. There was a trend (not statistically significant) of decreasing MI risk according to E27 or G16 alleles. Combined effect between E27 allele and history of dyslipidemia has been observed. Whereas dyslipidemia conferred a relative risk of MI of 4.8 (P<0.001) compared with normolipidemia in the entire study population, the relative risk increased to 9.0 (P<0.001) in Q27 homozygotes with dyslipidemia, and decreased to 1.8 (P=0.36) in E27 homozygotes. Our results show that the E27 allele of the beta2-adrenergic receptor has a significant protective effect on MI in dyslipidemic young male.