Psychometric Properties, Factor Structure, and Validity of the Sensitivity to Threat and Affiliative Reward Scale in Children and Adults.

Callous-Unemotional (CU) traits identify children at high risk of antisocial behavior. A recent theoretical model proposed that CU traits arise from low sensitivity to threat and affiliation. To assess these dimensions, we developed the parent- and self-reported Sensitivity to Threat and Affiliative Reward Scale (STARS) and tested its psychometric properties, factor structure, and construct validity. Samples 1 (N =3 03; age 3-10; United States) and 2 (N = 854 age 5-9; Spain) were children and Sample 3 was 514 young adults (Mage = 19.89; United States). In Sample 1, differential item functioning and item response theory techniques were used to identify the best-performing items from a 64-item pool, resulting in 28 items that functioned equivalently across age and gender. Factor analysis indicated acceptable fit for the theorized two-factor structure with separate threat and affiliation factors in all three samples, which showed predictive validity in relation to CU traits in children and psychopathic traits in young adults.

The Development of Co-Occurrent Anxiety and Externalizing Problems from Early Childhood: a Latent Transition Analysis Approach.

Research into co-occurrent internalizing and externalizing problems during childhood is flourishing. In particular, investigation on the association between anxiety and externalizing problems has yielded mixed findings, focused mainly on the issue of which problem might precede the other, and what role anxiety plays with respect to externalizing problems. Relatively little attention has been paid to the developmental patterns of these behaviors from early childhood, despite the potential of such knowledge to fully delineate etiological models of co-occurrence. This study aimed to examine the longitudinal association of anxiety and externalizing problems in a community sample of preschoolers (ELISA Project; N = 2,341; 48.2% girls), by identifying empirically derived profiles and then describing their change and stability through the use of Latent Transition Analysis. Gender differences were explored. Four different profiles were identified: "typically developing", "mainly anxious", "modestly externalizing" and "co-occurrent". Membership in these profile groups showed high stability over a two-year period. However, children in the "co-occurrent" profile group were the most likely to show changes, predominantly towards "modestly externalizing". Furthermore, a significant gender difference for transitions towards the "co-occurrent" profile group was found, with girls showing less likelihood of being assigned to such profile. These findings show that it is possible to identify an early persistent course of co-occurrent anxiety and externalizing problems, as well as observe changes in co-occurrence towards a simpler externalizing behavioral expression. Further research should explore predictors of group membership and changes in membership, that are malleable and therefore open to preventative intervention.

Psychopathic Traits in Childhood: Insights from Parental Warmth and Fearless Temperament via Conscience Development.

The role of psychopathic traits in predicting more serious and persistent patterns of child conduct problems has been well documented. The jointly presence of interpersonal (grandiose-deceitful), affective (e.g., callous-unemotional), and behavioral psychopathic traits (impulsive-need of stimulation) identifies a group of children at increased risk of psychosocial maladjustment. The present study aims to disentangle the underlying mechanisms by examining how early parenting (i.e., warmth) and child temperament (i.e., fearlessness) predict later psychopathic traits, via conscience development (CD). Data were collected in a large sample of children (n = 2.266; 48.5% girls), aged 3 to 6 at the onset of the study (Mage = 4.25; SD = 0.91), who were followed up one and two years later. The results showed direct effects from fearlessness to interpersonal and behavioral psychopathic traits. Parental warmth, fearless temperament, and their interaction, predicted CD, which, in turn, showed a negative effect on psychopathic traits. The indirect effects indicated significant negative mediation effects of warmth through CD on psychopathic traits, which seem to be stronger when children present lower levels of fearlessness. Overall, these results contribute to better understand the development of child psychopathic traits and provide additional insight on effective strategies that will help to restrain the potential development of a high-risk profile in early childhood.

A Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Test of the Low Sensitivity to Threat and Affiliative Reward (STAR) Model of Callous-Unemotional Traits Among Spanish Preschoolers.

Despite advances in the theoretical and empirical literature, a better understanding of the etiological determinants of callous-unemotional (CU) traits is needed. In this study, we tested the hypotheses advanced by the Sensitivity to Threat and Affiliative Reward (STAR) model, a theoretical framework, which proposes that individual differences in two temperament dimensions, fearlessness and low affiliation, jointly contribute to the development of CU traits. Specifically, we examined the unique and interactive effects of fearlessness and low affiliation on CU traits, both cross-sectionally and longitudinally and within and across informants (teachers and parents) in a large community sample of Spanish preschoolers (N = 2467, 48.1% girls, M = 4.25 years; SD = 0.91). Both fearlessness and low affiliation were independently related to higher CU traits across models. Consistent with the purported relationships outlined in the STAR model, we also found that a significant interaction between fearlessness and low affiliation explained unique variance in CU traits. The results suggested that main and interactive effects were specific to CU traits and not to other related dimensions of psychopathic traits that are measurable in early childhood (i.e. grandiose-deceitfulness and impulse need of stimulation). Thus, we provide new empirical support to the hypotheses generated by the STAR model in relation to the development of CU traits. Fearlessness and low affiliation are potential targets of future child-focused interventions to prevent or treat the development of CU traits and childhood conduct problems.

Testing the Effects of COVID-19 Confinement in Spanish Children: The Role of Parents' Distress, Emotional Problems and Specific Parenting.

The present study aimed to examine the effects of the Spanish confinement derived from the COVID-19 crisis on children and their families, accounting for child's age. A range of child negative (e.g., conduct problems) and positive outcomes (e.g., routine maintenance) were examined, along with a set of parent-related variables, including resilience, perceived distress, emotional problems, parenting distress and specific parenting practices (e.g., structured or avoidant parenting), which were modeled through path analysis to better understand child adjustment. Data were collected in April 2020, with information for the present study provided by 940 (89.6%) mothers, 102 (9.7%) fathers and 7 (0.7%) different caregivers, who informed on 1049 Spanish children (50.4% girls) aged 3 to 12 years (Mage = 7.29; SD = 2.39). The results suggested that, according to parents' information, most children did not show important changes in behavior, although some increasing rates were observed for both negative and positive outcomes. Child adjustment was influenced by a chain of effects, derived from parents' perceived distress and emotional response to the COVID-19 crisis, via parenting distress and specific parenting practices. While parenting distress in particular triggered child negative outcomes, specific parenting practices were more closely related to child positive outcomes. These findings may help to better inform, for potential future outbreaks, effective guidelines and prevention programs aimed at promoting the child's well-being in the family.

Children Coping, Contextual Risk and Their Interplay During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Spanish Case.

The COVID-19 pandemic has changed the lives of millions of people around the globe and some of the unprecedent emerged disruptions, are likely to have been particularly challenging for young children (e.g., school closures, social distancing measures, movement restrictions). Studying the impact of such extraordinary circumstances on their well-being is crucial to identify processes leading to risk and resilience. To better understand how Spanish children have adapted to the stressful disruptions resulting from the pandemic outbreak, we examined the effects of child coping and its interactions with contextual stressors (pandemic and family related) on child adjustment, incorporating in our analysis a developmental perspective. Data was collected in April 2020, through parent-reports, during the acute phase of the pandemic and, temporarily coinciding with the mandatory national quarantine period imposed by the Spanish Government. A sample of 1,123 Spanish children (50% girls) aged 3 to 12 (Mage = 7.26; SD = 2.39) participated in the study. Results showed differences in the use of specific strategies by children in different age groups (i.e., 3-6, 7-9 and 10-12-year-olds). Despite the uncontrollable nature of the pandemic-related stressors, child disengagement coping was distinctively associated to negative outcomes (i.e., higher levels of behavioral and emotional difficulties), whereas engagement coping predicted psychosocial adjustment across all age groups. Moreover, interactively with child coping, parent fear of the future and parent dispositional resilience appear as relevant contextual factors to predict both negative and positive outcomes, but their effects seem to be age dependent, suggesting a higher contextual vulnerability for younger children. These findings might have implications for identifying individual and contextual risk and informing potential preventive interventions aimed to reduce the impact of future pandemic outbreaks on children of different ages.

Bidirectional Effects between Psychopathic Traits and Conduct Problems in Early Childhood: Examining Parenting as Potential Mediator / Efectos bidireccionales entre rasgos psicopáticos y problemas de conducta en la infancia temprana: Analizando las prácticas parentales como posible mediador

The association between psychopathic traits and conduct problems has been extensively analyzed, with results showing a significant predictive effectof psychopathic traits on later conduct problems. However, some recent research has evidenced some reversed effects, with early-onset conduct prob-lems also showing a significant effect on psychopathic traits. The present study aimed to examine the longitudinal effects (i.e., autoregressive, direct, andbidirectional) between the three psychopathy dimensions (i.e., interpersonal, affective, and behavioral), and conduct problems in two data collectionsspanning one year (T1-T2). The potential mediation effect from inconsistent parenting and parental warmth was also analyzed. Data were collected,trough parents’ reports, in a sample of 1.833 children (48.8% girls; Mage = 4.24; SD = 0.92), participating in the ELISA study (Longitudinal Study fora Healthy Childhood). A cross-lagged path analysis with mediation effects was performed in Mplus. Results showed autoregressive, direct and bidirec-tional effects between psychopathic traits and conduct problems. Hence, whilst T1 conduct problems predicted all psychopathy dimensions in T2, onlycallous-unemotional and impulsive/need of stimulation traits measured in T1 predicted conduct problems in T2. Finally, some marginal mediation effectsfrom inconsistent parenting and parental warmth were also observed, particularly in the relationship between interpersonal and affective psychopathictraits, and later CP through parental warmth. Current findings provide relevant implications for developmental models of psychopathic traits, as well asfor predictive models and preventive strategies on early-onset conduct problems.(AU)

La relación entre rasgos psicopáticos y problemas de conducta ha sido extensamente analizada, constándose un efecto predictivo de losrasgos psicopáticos sobre los problemas de conducta a lo largo del desarrollo. Sin embargo, investigaciones recientes mostraron que los problemasde conducta de inicio temprano también pueden jugar un papel fundamental en el desarrollo de los rasgos de tipo psicopático. El presente trabajo tienecomo objetivo principal analizar los efectos longitudinales (i.e., autorregresivos, directos y recíprocos) entre las tres dimensiones de la personalidadpsicopática (interpersonal, afectiva y conductual) y los problemas de conducta a largo de un 1 año de estudio (T1-T2), analizando el posible efectomediador de las prácticas parentales inconsistentes y basadas en el afecto. Se emplearon datos de 1.833 niños/as (48.8% niñas; edad media = 4.24;DT = 0.92), proporcionados a través de informes de padres, participantes en el proyecto ELISA (Estudio Longitudinal para una Infancia Saludable).Se realizó un diseño longitudinal en panel con efectos de mediación en Mplus. Los resultados mostraron efectos autorregresivos, directos y recíprocosentre problemas de conducta y rasgos psicopáticos. Así, mientras los problemas de conducta en T1 permiten predecir cambios en las tres dimensionesde psicopatía en T2, únicamente los rasgos de dureza emocional e impulsividad/búsqueda de sensaciones en T1, predicen cambios en problemas deconducta en T2. Por último, se evidenció el posible papel mediador de las prácticas parentales, particularmente en la relación entre rasgos psicopáticosde tipo interpersonal y afectivo, y los problemas de conducta a través de las prácticas basadas en el afecto. Los resultados obtenidos permiten extraerimportantes implicaciones sobre los modelos de desarrollo de la personalidad psicopática, así como para la predicción y prevención de los problemasde conducta de inicio temprano.(AU)

Behavioral profiles related with distinct developmental patterns of negative emotionality from preschool to school ages / Perfiles comportamentales y su relación con patrones diferenciales de desarrollo de la emocionalidad negativa desde la etapa preescolar a la escolar

Research continues to work towards a full understanding of the early risk factors and mechanisms underlying the co-occurrence of ex-ternalizing and internalizing problems. There is increasing evidence of negative emotionality predicting the co-occurring forms of theseproblems over childhood. This feature may show substantial stability along development; however, negative emotionality might alsovary depending on child characteristics, environment, and the developmental stage. The present study aimed to examine the patternsof stability and change of negative emotionality from preschool to school years, and to identify which of these patterns lead to differentbehavioral profiles of externalizing and internalizing problems during school years. A total of 1,293 preschoolers from 4 to 6 years (M =4.64; SD = .67; 50.2 % girls) were followed-up for two years using parent-reported data, within the frame of the ELISA Project. Latentprofile and transition analyses were conducted. The overall results revealed a primarily stability pattern of negative emotionality, and toa lesser extent some change towards a less intense emotional expression after follow-up. Results also showed particular developmentalpatterns of negative emotionality for the different behavioral profiles identified. Children with co-occurrent externalizing and internalizingproblems displayed greater rates of transition towards a high negative emotionality expression. These findings were explained in light ofindividual differences during the development of temperamental characteristics, which may be the result of an interplay among biologicaland ecological factors.(AU)

La investigación continúa profundizando en torno a los mecanismos explicativos tempranos relacionados con lapresencia de problemas externalizantes e internalizantes concurrentes. Existe una creciente evidencia que destaca la capacidad de laemocionalidad negativa para predecir la concurrencia de estos problemas durante la infancia. Este rasgo parece cursar con una estabili-dad sustancial durante el desarrollo; no obstante, también se reconoce cierta variación en su intensidad en función de las característicasindividuales, del entorno y la etapa del desarrollo. El objetivo del presente trabajo es examinar los patrones de estabilidad y cambio de laemocionalidad negativa que exhiben niños/as con perfiles diferenciales de problemas externalizantes e internalizantes, centrando la aten-ción sobre el perfil concurrente. Un total de 1293 niños/as de 4-6 años (M = 4,64; DT = .67; 50.2% niñas) fueron evaluados durante laetapa preescolar y tras dos años hasta su paso a la escolarización primaria dentro del marco del Proyecto ELISA. Se emplearon análisisde perfiles y transiciones latentes. Los resultados mostraron que los preescolares se mantuvieron estables en sus niveles de emocionali-dad negativa durante el seguimiento, y con menor probabilidad cambiaron su expresión emocional hacia formas menos intensas. Además,los perfiles comportamentales se relacionaron con patrones particulares de desarrollo de la emocionalidad negativa. Los niños/as delperfil concurrente exhibieron una mayor probabilidad de evolucionar hacia niveles altos de emocionalidad negativa. Estos hallazgos seexplican a la luz de las diferencias individuales en el desarrollo de las características temperamentales, derivadas de la interacción entrefactores biológicos y ambientales.(AU)

Emotion regulation skills in children during the COVID-19 pandemic: influences on specific parenting and child adjustment / Las habilidades de regulación emocional de los niños durante la pandemia del COVID-19: influencias sobre prácticas parentales específicas y el ajuste de los niños

Child emotion regulation (ER) skills and specific parenting practices during the COVID-19 pandemic are likely to influence children adjustment in these unprecedented times. On this assumption, we first aimed to examine the predictive value of ER skills in relation to diverse indicators of behavioral and socioemotional adjustment. Then, we tested whether some of these associations could be partially explained through the mediator role of the specific parenting practices displayed within the pandemic context. These hypotheses were tested considering the previous levels of child reactivity as a potential moderator of the examined relations. Using parent-reported data from a sample of 874 Galician children (49.6% girls) aged 5 to 9 (Mage = 7.09; SD= 1.04), multiple regression and mediation analyses were conducted. Robust associations between ER skills and diverse indicators of child adjusment were found. Moreover, it was found that specific parenting practices mediate the relation between child ER skills and specific behavioral outcomes (i.e., child routine maintenance). Thus, our findings highlight the importance of ER skills for child adjustment during the COVID-19 crisis, not only through direct, but also indirect effects, suggesting that the kind of parenting style that children receive during the pandemic conditions might be partially elicited by their individual characteristics

Las habilidades de regulación emocional (HRE) de los niños/as y las prácticas parentales específicas surgidas como consecuencia de los importantes cambios originados por la pandemia del COVID-19, podrían contribuir a su adaptación durante esta época sin precedentes. Bajo estas consideraciones, nos propusimos, en primer lugar, examinar el valor predictivo de las HRE en relación a diversos indicadores conductuales y socioemocionales de ajuste, para después estudiar si algunas de estas asociaciones podrían ser parcialmente explicadas a través del rol mediador de las prácticas parentales específicas desplegadas por los padres/madres en estas circunstancias. Contrastamos nuestras hipótesis considerando los niveles previos de reactividad del niño/a como moderadores de las relaciones analizadas. Usando los datos proporcionados por los padres/madres de 874 niños/as gallegos (49.6% niñas) de 5 a 9 años (Medad = 7.09; SD = 1.04), se llevaron a cabo múltiples análisis de regresión y mediación. Se encontraron asociaciones robustas entre las HRE y diversos indicadores de ajuste. Además, se encontró que prácticas parentales específicas median la relación entre las HRE y un tipo de consecuencias conductuales positivas (i.e., el mantenimiento de rutinas por parte de los niños/as). Nuestros resultados constatan, por tanto, la importancia de las HRE para la adaptación de los niños/as a las condiciones derivadas de la crisis, no solo por sus efectos directos, sino también por su influencia a través de efectos indirectos, que sugieren que el tipo de prácticas parentales que los niños/as reciben durante la pandemia, podría ser parcialmente elicitado por sus características personales