An Emergent Population Code in Primary Auditory Cortex Supports Selective Attention to Spectral and Temporal Sound Features.

Textbook descriptions of primary sensory cortex (PSC) revolve around single neurons' representation of low-dimensional sensory features, such as visual object orientation in primary visual cortex (V1), location of somatic touch in primary somatosensory cortex (S1), and sound frequency in primary auditory cortex (A1). Typically, studies of PSC measure neurons' responses along few (one or two) stimulus and/or behavioral dimensions. However, real-world stimuli usually vary along many feature dimensions and behavioral demands change constantly. In order to illuminate how A1 supports flexible perception in rich acoustic environments, we recorded from A1 neurons while rhesus macaques (one male, one female) performed a feature-selective attention task. We presented sounds that varied along spectral and temporal feature dimensions (carrier bandwidth and temporal envelope, respectively). Within a block, subjects attended to one feature of the sound in a selective change detection task. We found that single neurons tend to be high-dimensional, in that they exhibit substantial mixed selectivity for both sound features, as well as task context. We found no overall enhancement of single-neuron coding of the attended feature, as attention could either diminish or enhance this coding. However, a population-level analysis reveals that ensembles of neurons exhibit enhanced encoding of attended sound features, and this population code tracks subjects' performance. Importantly, surrogate neural populations with intact single-neuron tuning but shuffled higher-order correlations among neurons fail to yield attention- related effects observed in the intact data. These results suggest that an emergent population code not measurable at the single-neuron level might constitute the functional unit of sensory representation in PSC.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The ability to adapt to a dynamic sensory environment promotes a range of important natural behaviors. We recorded from single neurons in monkey primary auditory cortex (A1), while subjects attended to either the spectral or temporal features of complex sounds. Surprisingly, we found no average increase in responsiveness to, or encoding of, the attended feature across single neurons. However, when we pooled the activity of the sampled neurons via targeted dimensionality reduction (TDR), we found enhanced population-level representation of the attended feature and suppression of the distractor feature. This dissociation of the effects of attention at the level of single neurons versus the population highlights the synergistic nature of cortical sound encoding and enriches our understanding of sensory cortical function.

Temporally precise population coding of dynamic sounds by auditory cortex.

Fluctuations in the amplitude envelope of complex sounds provide critical cues for hearing, particularly for speech and animal vocalizations. Responses to amplitude modulation (AM) in the ascending auditory pathway have chiefly been described for single neurons. How neural populations might collectively encode and represent information about AM remains poorly characterized, even in primary auditory cortex (A1). We modeled population responses to AM based on data recorded from A1 neurons in awake squirrel monkeys and evaluated how accurately single trial responses to modulation frequencies from 4 to 512 Hz could be decoded as functions of population size, composition, and correlation structure. We found that a population-based decoding model that simulated convergent, equally weighted inputs was highly accurate and remarkably robust to the inclusion of neurons that were individually poor decoders. By contrast, average rate codes based on convergence performed poorly; effective decoding using average rates was only possible when the responses of individual neurons were segregated, as in classical population decoding models using labeled lines. The relative effectiveness of dynamic rate coding in auditory cortex was explained by shared modulation phase preferences among cortical neurons, despite heterogeneity in rate-based modulation frequency tuning. Our results indicate significant population-based synchrony in primary auditory cortex and suggest that robust population coding of the sound envelope information present in animal vocalizations and speech can be reliably achieved even with indiscriminate pooling of cortical responses. These findings highlight the importance of firing rate dynamics in population-based sensory coding.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Fundamental questions remain about population coding in primary auditory cortex (A1). In particular, issues of spike timing in models of neural populations have been largely ignored. We find that spike-timing in response to sound envelope fluctuations is highly similar across neuron populations in A1. This property of shared envelope phase preference allows for a simple population model involving unweighted convergence of neuronal responses to classify amplitude modulation frequencies with high accuracy.

Choice-related activity and neural encoding in primary auditory cortex and lateral belt during feature-selective attention.

Selective attention is necessary to sift through, form a coherent percept of, and make behavioral decisions on the vast amount of information present in most sensory environments. How and where selective attention is employed in cortex and how this perceptual information then informs the relevant behavioral decisions is still not well understood. Studies probing selective attention and decision-making in visual cortex have been enlightening as to how sensory attention might work in that modality; whether or not similar mechanisms are employed in auditory attention is not yet clear. Therefore, we trained rhesus macaques on a feature-selective attention task, where they switched between reporting changes in temporal (amplitude modulation, AM) and spectral (carrier bandwidth) features of a broadband noise stimulus. We investigated how the encoding of these features by single neurons in primary (A1) and secondary (middle lateral belt, ML) auditory cortex was affected by the different attention conditions. We found that neurons in A1 and ML showed mixed selectivity to the sound and task features. We found no difference in AM encoding between the attention conditions. We found that choice-related activity in both A1 and ML neurons shifts between attentional conditions. This finding suggests that choice-related activity in auditory cortex does not simply reflect motor preparation or action and supports the relationship between reported choice-related activity and the decision and perceptual process.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We recorded from primary and secondary auditory cortex while monkeys performed a nonspatial feature attention task. Both areas exhibited rate-based choice-related activity. The manifestation of choice-related activity was attention dependent, suggesting that choice-related activity in auditory cortex does not simply reflect arousal or motor influences but relates to the specific perceptual choice.

Feature-Selective Attention Adaptively Shifts Noise Correlations in Primary Auditory Cortex.

Sensory environments often contain an overwhelming amount of information, with both relevant and irrelevant information competing for neural resources. Feature attention mediates this competition by selecting the sensory features needed to form a coherent percept. How attention affects the activity of populations of neurons to support this process is poorly understood because population coding is typically studied through simulations in which one sensory feature is encoded without competition. Therefore, to study the effects of feature attention on population-based neural coding, investigations must be extended to include stimuli with both relevant and irrelevant features. We measured noise correlations (rnoise) within small neural populations in primary auditory cortex while rhesus macaques performed a novel feature-selective attention task. We found that the effect of feature-selective attention on rnoise depended not only on the population tuning to the attended feature, but also on the tuning to the distractor feature. To attempt to explain how these observed effects might support enhanced perceptual performance, we propose an extension of a simple and influential model in which shifts in rnoise can simultaneously enhance the representation of the attended feature while suppressing the distractor. These findings present a novel mechanism by which attention modulates neural populations to support sensory processing in cluttered environments.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Although feature-selective attention constitutes one of the building blocks of listening in natural environments, its neural bases remain obscure. To address this, we developed a novel auditory feature-selective attention task and measured noise correlations (rnoise) in rhesus macaque A1 during task performance. Unlike previous studies showing that the effect of attention on rnoise depends on population tuning to the attended feature, we show that the effect of attention depends on the tuning to the distractor feature as well. We suggest that these effects represent an efficient process by which sensory cortex simultaneously enhances relevant information and suppresses irrelevant information.

Hierarchical differences in population coding within auditory cortex.

Most models of auditory cortical (AC) population coding have focused on primary auditory cortex (A1). Thus our understanding of how neural coding for sounds progresses along the cortical hierarchy remains obscure. To illuminate this, we recorded from two AC fields: A1 and middle lateral belt (ML) of rhesus macaques. We presented amplitude-modulated (AM) noise during both passive listening and while the animals performed an AM detection task ("active" condition). In both fields, neurons exhibit monotonic AM-depth tuning, with A1 neurons mostly exhibiting increasing rate-depth functions and ML neurons approximately evenly distributed between increasing and decreasing functions. We measured noise correlation (rnoise) between simultaneously recorded neurons and found that whereas engagement decreased average rnoise in A1, engagement increased average rnoise in ML. This finding surprised us, because attentive states are commonly reported to decrease average rnoise We analyzed the effect of rnoise on AM coding in both A1 and ML and found that whereas engagement-related shifts in rnoise in A1 enhance AM coding, rnoise shifts in ML have little effect. These results imply that the effect of rnoise differs between sensory areas, based on the distribution of tuning properties among the neurons within each population. A possible explanation of this is that higher areas need to encode nonsensory variables (e.g., attention, choice, and motor preparation), which impart common noise, thus increasing rnoise Therefore, the hierarchical emergence of rnoise-robust population coding (e.g., as we observed in ML) enhances the ability of sensory cortex to integrate cognitive and sensory information without a loss of sensory fidelity.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Prevailing models of population coding of sensory information are based on a limited subset of neural structures. An important and under-explored question in neuroscience is how distinct areas of sensory cortex differ in their population coding strategies. In this study, we compared population coding between primary and secondary auditory cortex. Our findings demonstrate striking differences between the two areas and highlight the importance of considering the diversity of neural structures as we develop models of population coding.

Task engagement selectively modulates neural correlations in primary auditory cortex.

Noise correlations (r(noise)) between neurons can affect a neural population's discrimination capacity, even without changes in mean firing rates of neurons. r(noise), the degree to which the response variability of a pair of neurons is correlated, has been shown to change with attention with most reports showing a reduction in r(noise). However, the effect of reducing r(noise) on sensory discrimination depends on many factors, including the tuning similarity, or tuning correlation (r(tuning)), between the pair. Theoretically, reducing r(noise) should enhance sensory discrimination when the pair exhibits similar tuning, but should impair discrimination when tuning is dissimilar. We recorded from pairs of neurons in primary auditory cortex (A1) under two conditions: while rhesus macaque monkeys (Macaca mulatta) actively performed a threshold amplitude modulation (AM) detection task and while they sat passively awake. We report that, for pairs with similar AM tuning, average r(noise) in A1 decreases when the animal performs the AM detection task compared with when sitting passively. For pairs with dissimilar tuning, the average r(noise) did not significantly change between conditions. This suggests that attention-related modulation can target selective subcircuits to decorrelate noise. These results demonstrate that engagement in an auditory task enhances population coding in primary auditory cortex by selectively reducing deleterious r(noise) and leaving beneficial r(noise) intact.

High-resolution structural analysis of mammalian profilin 2a complex formation with two physiological ligands: the formin homology 1 domain of mDia1 and the proline-rich domain of VASP.

Profilins are small proteins capable of binding actin, poly-l-proline and other proline-rich sequences, and phosphatidylinositol (4,5)-bisphosphate. A number of proline-rich ligands for profilin have been characterised, including proteins of the Ena/VASP and formin families. We have determined the high-resolution crystal structures of mouse profilin 2a in complex with peptides from two functionally important ligands from different families, VASP and mDia1. The structures show that the binding mode of the peptide ligand is strongly affected by the non-proline residues in the sequence, and the peptides from VASP and mDia1 bind to profilin 2a in distinct modes. The high resolution of the crystallographic data allowed us to detect conserved CH-pi hydrogen bonds between the peptide and profilin in both complexes. Furthermore, both peptides, which are shown to have micromolar affinity, induced the dimerisation of profilin, potentially leading to functionally different ligand-profilin-actin complexes. The peptides did not significantly affect actin polymerisation kinetics in the presence or in the absence of profilin 2a. Mutant profilins were tested for binding to poly-L-proline and the VASP and mDia1 peptides, and the F139A mutant bound proline-rich ligands with near-native affinity. Peptide blotting using a series of designed peptides with profilins 1 and 2a indicates differences between the two profilins towards proline-rich peptides from mDia1 and VASP. Our data provide structural insights into the mechanisms of mDia1 and VASP regulated actin polymerisation.

Incorporating expression data in metabolic modeling: a case study of lactate dehydrogenase.

Integrating biological information from different sources to understand cellular processes is an important problem in systems biology. We use data from mRNA expression arrays and chemical kinetics to formulate a metabolic model relevant to K562 erythroleukemia cells. MAP kinase pathway activation alters the expression of metabolic enzymes in K562 cells. Our array data show changes in expression of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) isoforms after treatment with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), which activates MAP kinase signaling. We model the change in lactate production which occurs when the MAP kinase pathway is activated, using a non-equilibrium, chemical-kinetic model of homolactic fermentation. In particular, we examine the role of LDH isoforms, which catalyse the conversion of pyruvate to lactate. Changes in the isoform ratio are not the primary determinant of the production of lactate. Rather, the total concentration of LDH controls the lactate concentration.