A hyper-quiescent chromatin state formed during aging is reversed by regeneration.

Epigenetic alterations are a key hallmark of aging but have been limitedly explored in tissues. Here, using naturally aged murine liver as a model and extending to other quiescent tissues, we find that aging is driven by temporal chromatin alterations that promote a refractory cellular state and compromise cellular identity. Using an integrated multi-omics approach and the first direct visualization of aged chromatin, we find that globally, old cells show H3K27me3-driven broad heterochromatinization and transcriptional suppression. At the local level, site-specific loss of H3K27me3 over promoters of genes encoding developmental transcription factors leads to expression of otherwise non-hepatocyte markers. Interestingly, liver regeneration reverses H3K27me3 patterns and rejuvenates multiple molecular and physiological aspects of the aged liver.

Physiology of the tongue with emphasis on taste transduction.

The tongue is a complex multifunctional organ that interacts and senses both interoceptively and exteroceptively. Although it is easily visible to almost all of us, it is relatively understudied and what is in the literature is often contradictory or is not comprehensively reported. The tongue is both a motor and a sensory organ: motor in that it is required for speech and mastication, and sensory in that it receives information to be relayed to the central nervous system pertaining to the safety and quality of the contents of the oral cavity. Additionally, the tongue and its taste apparatus form part of an innate immune surveillance system. For example, loss or alteration in taste perception can be an early indication of infection as became evident during the present global SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Here, we particularly emphasize the latest updates in the mechanisms of taste perception, taste bud formation and adult taste bud renewal, and the presence and effects of hormones on taste perception, review the understudied lingual immune system with specific reference to SARS-CoV-2, discuss nascent work on tongue microbiome, as well as address the effect of systemic disease on tongue structure and function, especially in relation to taste.

Pharmaceutical targeting of the cannabinoid type 1 receptor impacts the crosstalk between immune cells and islets to reduce insulitis in humans.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Insulitis, a hallmark of inflammation preceding autoimmune type 1 diabetes, leads to the eventual loss of functional beta cells. However, functional beta cells can persist even in the face of continuous insulitis. Despite advances in immunosuppressive treatments, maintaining functional beta cells to prevent insulitis progression and hyperglycaemia remains a challenge. The cannabinoid type 1 receptor (CB1R), present in immune cells and beta cells, regulates inflammation and beta cell function. Here, we pioneer an ex vivo model mirroring human insulitis to investigate the role of CB1R in this process. METHODS: CD4+ T lymphocytes were isolated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from male and female individuals at the onset of type 1 diabetes and from non-diabetic individuals, RNA was extracted and mRNA expression was analysed by real-time PCR. Single beta cell expression from donors with type 1 diabetes was obtained from data mining. Patient-derived human islets from male and female cadaveric donors were 3D-cultured in solubilised extracellular matrix gel in co-culture with the same donor PBMCs, and incubated with cytokines (IL-1ß, TNF-α, IFN-γ) for 24-48 h in the presence of vehicle or increasing concentrations of the CB1R blocker JD-5037. Expression of CNR1 (encoding for CB1R) was ablated using CRISPR/Cas9 technology. Viability, intracellular stress and signalling were assayed by live-cell probing and real-time PCR. The islet function measured as glucose-stimulated insulin secretion was determined in a perifusion system. Infiltration of immune cells into the islets was monitored by microscopy. Non-obese diabetic mice aged 7 weeks were treated for 1 week with JD-5037, then euthanised. Profiling of immune cells infiltrated in the islets was performed by flow cytometry. RESULTS: CNR1 expression was upregulated in circulating CD4+ T cells from individuals at type 1 diabetes onset (6.9-fold higher vs healthy individuals) and in sorted islet beta cells from donors with type 1 diabetes (3.6-fold higher vs healthy counterparts). The peripherally restricted CB1R inverse agonist JD-5037 arrested the initiation of insulitis in humans and mice. Mechanistically, CB1R blockade prevented islet NO production and ameliorated the ATF6 arm of the unfolded protein response. Consequently, cyto/chemokine expression decreased in human islets, leading to sustained islet cell viability and function. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: These results suggest that CB1R could be an interesting target for type 1 diabetes while highlighting the regulatory mechanisms of insulitis. Moreover, these findings may apply to type 2 diabetes where islet inflammation is also a pathophysiological factor. DATA AVAILABILITY: Transcriptomic analysis of sorted human beta cells are from Gene Expression Omnibus database, accession no. GSE121863, available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/geo/query/acc.cgi?acc=GSM3448161 .

Human Type II Taste Cells Express Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2 and Are Infected by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2).

Chemosensory changes are well-reported symptoms of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. The virus targets cells for entry by binding of its spike protein to cell-surface angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2). It is not known whether ACE2 is expressed on taste receptor cells (TRCs), or whether TRCs are infected directly. in situ hybridization probe and an antibody specific to ACE2 indicated presence of ACE2 on a subpopulation of TRCs (namely, type II cells in taste buds in taste papillae). Fungiform papillae of a SARS-CoV-2+ patient exhibiting symptoms of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), including taste changes, were biopsied. Presence of replicating SARS-CoV-2 in type II cells was verified by in situ hybridization. Therefore, taste type II cells provide a potential portal for viral entry that predicts vulnerabilities to SARS-CoV-2 in the oral cavity. The continuity and cell turnover of a patient's fungiform papillae taste stem cell layer were disrupted during infection and had not completely recovered 6 weeks after symptom onset. Another patient experiencing post-COVID-19 taste disturbances also had disrupted stem cells. These results demonstrate the possibility that novel and sudden taste changes, frequently reported in COVID-19, may be the result of direct infection of taste papillae by SARS-CoV-2. This may result in impaired taste receptor stem cell activity and suggest that further work is needed to understand the acute and postacute dynamics of viral kinetics in the human taste bud.

Muscle cannabinoid 1 receptor regulates Il-6 and myostatin expression, governing physical performance and whole-body metabolism.

Sarcopenic obesity, the combination of skeletal muscle mass and function loss with an increase in body fat, is associated with physical limitations, cardiovascular diseases, metabolic stress, and increased risk of mortality. Cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1R) plays a critical role in the regulation of whole-body energy metabolism because of its involvement in controlling appetite, fuel distribution, and utilization. Inhibition of CB1R improves insulin secretion and insulin sensitivity in pancreatic ß-cells and hepatocytes. We have now developed a skeletal muscle-specific CB1R-knockout (Skm-CB1R-/-) mouse to study the specific role of CB1R in muscle. Muscle-CB1R ablation prevented diet-induced and age-induced insulin resistance by increasing IR signaling. Moreover, muscle-CB1R ablation enhanced AKT signaling, reducing myostatin expression and increasing IL-6 secretion. Subsequently, muscle-CB1R ablation increased myogenesis through its action on MAPK-mediated myogenic gene expression. Consequently, Skm-CB1R-/- mice had increased muscle mass and whole-body lean/fat ratio in obesity and aging. Muscle-CB1R ablation improved mitochondrial performance, leading to increased whole-body muscle energy expenditure and improved physical endurance, with no change in body weight. These results collectively show that CB1R in muscle is sufficient to regulate whole-body metabolism and physical performance and is a novel target for the treatment of sarcopenic obesity. -González-Mariscal, I., Montoro, R. A., O'Connell, J. F., Kim, Y., Gonzalez-Freire, M., Liu, Q.-R., Alfaras, I., Carlson, O. D., Lehrmann, E., Zhang, Y., Becker, K. G., Hardivillé, S., Ghosh, P., Egan, J. M. Muscle cannabinoid 1 receptor regulates Il-6 and myostatin expression, governing physical performance and whole-body metabolism.

Age-Related Changes in Glucose Metabolism, Hyperglycemia, and Cardiovascular Risk.

Aging and diabetes mellitus are 2 well-known risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD). During the past 50 years, there has been an dramatic increase in life expectancy with a simultaneous increase in the prevalence of diabetes mellitus in the older population. This large number of older individuals with diabetes mellitus is problematic given that CVD risk associated with aging and diabetes mellitus. In this review, we summarize epidemiological data relating to diabetes mellitus and CVD, with an emphasis on the aging population. We then present data on hyperglycemia as a risk factor for CVD and review the current knowledge of age-related changes in glucose metabolism. Next, we review the role of obesity in the pathogenesis of age-related glucose dysregulation, followed by a summary of the results from major randomized controlled trials that focus on cardiovascular risk reduction through glycemic control, with a special emphasis on older adults. We then conclude with our proposed model of aging that body composition changes and insulin resistance link possible dysregulation of physiological pathways leading to obesity and diabetes mellitus-both forms of accelerated aging-and risks for CVD.

RNA-binding protein HuD controls insulin translation.

Although expression of the mammalian RNA-binding protein HuD was considered to be restricted to neurons, we report that HuD is present in pancreatic ß cells, where its levels are controlled by the insulin receptor pathway. We found that HuD associated with a 22-nucleotide segment of the 5' untranslated region (UTR) of preproinsulin (Ins2) mRNA. Modulating HuD abundance did not alter Ins2 mRNA levels, but HuD overexpression decreased Ins2 mRNA translation and insulin production, and conversely, HuD silencing enhanced Ins2 mRNA translation and insulin production. Following treatment with glucose, HuD rapidly dissociated from Ins2 mRNA and enabled insulin biosynthesis. Importantly, HuD-knockout mice displayed higher insulin levels in pancreatic islets, while HuD-overexpressing mice exhibited lower insulin levels in islets and in plasma. In sum, our results identify HuD as a pivotal regulator of insulin translation in pancreatic ß cells.

An inverse agonist of estrogen-related receptor γ regulates 2-arachidonoylglycerol synthesis by modulating diacylglycerol lipase expression in alcohol-intoxicated mice.

Chronic alcohol feeding increases the levels of 2-arachidonoylglycerol (2-AG) in the liver, which activates hepatic cannabinoid receptor type 1 (CB1R), leading to oxidative liver injury. 2-AG biosynthesis is catalyzed by diacylglycerol lipase (DAGL). However, the mechanisms regulating hepatic DAGL gene expression and 2-AG production are largely unknown. In this study, we show that CB1R-induced estrogen-related receptor γ (ERRγ) controls hepatic DAGL gene expression and 2-AG levels. Arachidonyl-2'-chloroethylamide (ACEA), a synthetic CB1R agonist, significantly upregulated ERRγ, DAGLα, and DAGLß, and increased 2-AG levels in the liver (10 mg/kg) and hepatocytes (10 µM) of wild-type (WT) mice. ERRγ overexpression upregulated DAGLα and DAGLß expressions and increased 2-AG levels, whereas ERRγ knockdown abolished ACEA-induced DAGLα, DAGLß, and 2-AG in vitro and in vivo. Promoter assays showed that ERRγ positively regulated DAGLα and DAGLß transcription by binding to the ERR response element in the DAGLα and DAGLß promoters. Chronic alcohol feeding (27.5% of total calories) induced hepatic steatosis and upregulated ERRγ, leading to increased DAGLα, DAGLß, or 2-AG in WT mice, whereas these alcohol-induced effects did not occur in hepatocyte-specific CB1R knockout mice or in those treated with the ERRγ inverse agonist GSK5182 (40 mg/kg in mice and 10 µM in vitro). Taken together, these results indicate that suppression of alcohol-induced DAGLα and DAGLß gene expressions and 2-AG levels by an ERRγ-specific inverse agonist may be a novel and attractive therapeutic approach for the treatment of alcoholic liver disease.

SARS-CoV-2 disease severity and diabetes: why the connection and what is to be done?

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), a novel virus responsible for the current coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, has infected over 3.5 million people all over the world since the first case was reported from Wuhan, China 5 months ago. As more epidemiological data regarding COVID-19 patients is acquired, factors that increase the severity of the infection are being identified and reported. One of the most consistent co-morbidities associated with worse outcome in COVID-19 patients is diabetes, along with age and cardiovascular disease. Studies on the association of diabetes with other acute respiratory infections, namely SARS, MERS, and Influenza, outline what seems to be an underlying factor in diabetic patients that makes them more susceptible to complications. In this review we summarize what we think may be the factors driving this pattern between diabetes, aging and poor outcomes in respiratory infections. We also review therapeutic considerations and strategies for treatment of COVID-19 in diabetic patients, and how the additional challenge of this co-morbidity requires attention to glucose homeostasis so as to achieve the best outcomes possible for patients.

Identification of novel mouse and rat CB1R isoforms and in silico modeling of human CB1R for peripheral cannabinoid therapeutics.

Targeting peripheral CB1R is desirable for the treatment of metabolic syndromes without adverse neuropsychiatric effects. We previously reported a human hCB1b isoform that is selectively enriched in pancreatic beta-cells and hepatocytes, providing a potential peripheral therapeutic hCB1R target. It is unknown whether there are peripherally enriched mouse and rat CB1R (mCB1 and rCB1, respectively) isoforms. In this study, we found no evidence of peripherally enriched rodent CB1 isoforms; however, some mCB1R isoforms are absent in peripheral tissues. We show that the mouse Cnr1 gene contains six exons that are transcribed from a single promoter. We found that mCB1A is a spliced variant of extended exon 1 and protein-coding exon 6; mCB1B is a novel spliced variant containing unspliced exon 1, intron 1, and exon 2, which is then spliced to exon 6; and mCB1C is a spliced variant including all 6 exons. Using RNAscope in situ hybridization, we show that the isoforms mCB1A and mCB1B are expressed at a cellular level and colocalized in GABAergic neurons in the hippocampus and cortex. RT-qPCR reveals that mCB1A and mCB1B are enriched in the brain, while mCB1B is not expressed in the pancreas or the liver. Rat rCB1R isoforms are differentially expressed in primary cultured neurons, astrocytes, and microglia. We also investigated modulation of Cnr1 expression by insulin in vivo and carried out in silico modeling of CB1R with JD5037, a peripherally restricted CB1R inverse agonist, using the published crystal structure of hCB1R. The results provide models for future CB1R peripheral targeting.

Absence of cannabinoid 1 receptor in beta cells protects against high-fat/high-sugar diet-induced beta cell dysfunction and inflammation in murine islets.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: The cannabinoid 1 receptor (CB1R) regulates insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism in peripheral tissues. CB1R is expressed on pancreatic beta cells and is coupled to the G protein Gαi, suggesting a negative regulation of endogenous signalling in the beta cell. Deciphering the exact function of CB1R in beta cells has been confounded by the expression of this receptor on multiple tissues involved in regulating metabolism. Thus, in models of global genetic or pharmacological CB1R blockade, it is difficult to distinguish the indirect effects of improved insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues from the direct effects of inhibiting CB1R in beta cells per se. To assess the direct contribution of beta cell CB1R to metabolism, we designed a mouse model that allows us to determine the role of CB1R specifically in beta cells in the context of whole-body metabolism. METHODS: We generated a beta cell specific Cnr1 (CB1R) knockout mouse (ß-CB1R-/-) to study the long-term consequences of CB1R ablation on beta cell function in adult mice. We measured beta cell function, proliferation and viability in these mice in response to a high-fat/high-sugar diet and induction of acute insulin resistance with the insulin receptor antagonist S961. RESULTS: ß-CB1R-/- mice had increased fasting (153 ± 23% increase at 10 weeks of age) and stimulated insulin secretion and increased intra-islet cAMP levels (217 ± 33% increase at 10 weeks of age), resulting in primary hyperinsulinaemia, as well as increased beta cell viability, proliferation and islet area (1.9-fold increase at 10 weeks of age). Hyperinsulinaemia led to insulin resistance, which was aggravated by a high-fat/high-sugar diet and weight gain, although beta cells maintained their insulin secretory capacity in response to glucose. Strikingly, islets from ß-CB1R-/- mice were protected from diet-induced inflammation. Mechanistically, we show that this is a consequence of curtailment of oxidative stress and reduced activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in beta cells. CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: Our data demonstrate CB1R to be a negative regulator of beta cell function and a mediator of islet inflammation under conditions of metabolic stress. Our findings point to beta cell CB1R as a therapeutic target, and broaden its potential to include anti-inflammatory effects in both major forms of diabetes. DATA AVAILABILITY: Microarray data have been deposited at GEO (GSE102027).

Blockade of cannabinoid 1 receptor improves glucose responsiveness in pancreatic beta cells.

Cannabinoid 1 receptors (CB1Rs) are expressed in peripheral tissues, including islets of Langerhans, where their function(s) is under scrutiny. Using mouse ß-cell lines, human islets and CB1R-null (CB1R-/- ) mice, we have now investigated the role of CB1Rs in modulating ß-cell function and glucose responsiveness. Synthetic CB1R agonists diminished GLP-1-mediated cAMP accumulation and insulin secretion as well as glucose-stimulated insulin secretion in mouse ß-cell lines and human islets. In addition, silencing CB1R in mouse ß cells resulted in an increased expression of pro-insulin, glucokinase (GCK) and glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2), but this increase was lost in ß cells lacking insulin receptor. Furthermore, CB1R-/- mice had increased pro-insulin, GCK and GLUT2 expression in ß cells. Our results suggest that CB1R signalling in pancreatic islets may be harnessed to improve ß-cell glucose responsiveness and preserve their function. Thus, our findings further support that blocking peripheral CB1Rs would be beneficial to ß-cell function in type 2 diabetes.

Endocannabinoids in the Islets of Langerhans: the ugly, the bad, and the good facts.

The endocannabinoid system (ECS) regulates cellular homeostasis and whole-body metabolism. There is an autonomous ECS in the endocrine pancreas, including the cannabinoid 1 receptor (CB1R) that is present in ß-cells. Here, we discuss conflicts that have arisen with regard to the function(s) of the ECs in the endocrine pancreas and that have caused confusion when defining the role of the ECS in islets of Langerhans, especially the role(s) of CB1R in ß-cells. We also discuss the latest data published concerning the ECS in islets. CB1R in particular is not simply a negative modulator of insulin secretion as it is also involved in intra-islet inflammation during high fat-high sugar intake and it is a negative regulator of ß-cell viability and turnover. We also discuss the feasibility of using CB1R as a target for the treatment of diabetes.

Targeting Stem Cells in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia with a PPAR-γ Agonist.

Combining a tyrosine kinase inhibitor (imatinib) and a thiazolidinedione (pioglitazone) is proposed for the treatment of chronic myeloid leukemia.

Regular low-calorie sweetener consumption is associated with increased secretion of glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide.

Low-calorie sweeteners (LCSs) are widely used for weight control despite limited evidence of their effectiveness and studies linking LCS consumption with incident obesity. We tested the hypothesis that regular LCS consumption is associated with higher postprandial glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) secretion, which has been linked to obesity. We used data from participants in the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging who had completed a diet diary, had at least one visit during which they underwent an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), and had no diabetes. Of 232 participants, 166 contributed 1, 39 contributed 2, and 27 contributed 3 visits, and 96 (41%) reported using LCS. Plasma OGTT samples were analysed for glucose, insulin and GIP. Fasting glucose, insulin and GIP levels were no different between LCS users and non-users. The association of LCS use with 2-hour OGTT responses after adjustment for covariates was non-significant for glucose (P = .98) and insulin (P = .18), but significant for greater increase in GIP in LCS users (P = .037). Regular consumption of LCSs was associated with greater increases in GIP secretion after food intake, which may potentially lead to weight gain through the lipogenic properties of GIP.

Evidence for brain glucose dysregulation in Alzheimer's disease.

INTRODUCTION: It is unclear whether abnormalities in brain glucose homeostasis are associated with Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. METHODS: Within the autopsy cohort of the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging, we measured brain glucose concentration and assessed the ratios of the glycolytic amino acids, serine, glycine, and alanine to glucose. We also quantified protein levels of the neuronal (GLUT3) and astrocytic (GLUT1) glucose transporters. Finally, we assessed the relationships between plasma glucose measured before death and brain tissue glucose. RESULTS: Higher brain tissue glucose concentration, reduced glycolytic flux, and lower GLUT3 are related to severity of AD pathology and the expression of AD symptoms. Longitudinal increases in fasting plasma glucose levels are associated with higher brain tissue glucose concentrations. DISCUSSION: Impaired glucose metabolism due to reduced glycolytic flux may be intrinsic to AD pathogenesis. Abnormalities in brain glucose homeostasis may begin several years before the onset of clinical symptoms.

Incretin secretion in humans is under the influence of cannabinoid receptors.

The mechanisms regulating incretin secretion are not fully known. Human obesity is associated with altered incretin secretion and elevated endocannabinoid levels. Since cannabinoid receptors (CBRs) are expressed on incretin-secreting cells in rodents, we hypothesized that endocannabinoids are involved in the regulation of incretin secretion. We compared plasma glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) responses during oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) in 20 lean and 20 obese participants from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging (BLSA). Next, we recruited 20 healthy men to evaluate GIP and GLP-1 responses during OGTT after administering placebo or nabilone (CBR agonist) in a randomized, double-blind, crossover fashion. Compared with the BLSA lean group, the BLSA obese group had significantly higher fasting and post-OGTT GIP levels, but similar fasting GLP-1 and significantly lower post-OGTT GLP-1 levels. In the nabilone vs. placebo study, when compared with placebo, nabilone resulted in significantly elevated post-dose fasting GIP levels and post-OGTT GIP levels, but no change in post-dose fasting GLP-1 levels together with significantly lower post-OGTT GLP-1 levels. Glucose levels were not different with both interventions. We conclude that elevated GIP levels in obesity are likely a consequence of increased endocannabinoid levels. CBRs exert tonic control over GIP secretion, which may have a homeostatic effect in suppressing GLP-1 secretion. This raises the possibility that gut hormones are influenced by endocannabinoids.

DNA polymerase ß deficiency leads to neurodegeneration and exacerbates Alzheimer disease phenotypes.

We explore the role of DNA damage processing in the progression of cognitive decline by creating a new mouse model. The new model is a cross of a common Alzheimer's disease (AD) mouse (3xTgAD), with a mouse that is heterozygous for the critical DNA base excision repair enzyme, DNA polymerase ß. A reduction of this enzyme causes neurodegeneration and aggravates the AD features of the 3xTgAD mouse, inducing neuronal dysfunction, cell death and impairing memory and synaptic plasticity. Transcriptional profiling revealed remarkable similarities in gene expression alterations in brain tissue of human AD patients and 3xTg/Polß(+/-) mice including abnormalities suggestive of impaired cellular bioenergetics. Our findings demonstrate that a modest decrement in base excision repair capacity can render the brain more vulnerable to AD-related molecular and cellular alterations.