Development of PD in lower-income countries: a rational solution for the management of AKI and ESKD.

It is estimated that >50% of patients with end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) in low-resource countries are unable to access dialysis. When hemodialysis is available, it often has high out-of-pocket expenditure and is seldom delivered to the standard recommended by international guidelines. Hemodialysis is a high-cost intervention with significant negative effects on environmental sustainability, especially in resource-poor countries (the ones most likely to be affected by resultant climate change). This review discusses the rationale for peritoneal dialysis (PD) as a more resource and environmentally efficient treatment with the potential to improve dialysis access, especially to vulnerable populations, including women and children, in lower-resource countries. Successful initiatives such as the Saving Young Lives program have demonstrated the benefit of PD for acute kidney injury. This can then serve as a foundation for later development of PD services for end-stage kidney disease programs in these countries. Expansion of PD programs in resource-poor countries has proven to be challenging for various reasons. It is hoped that if some of these issues can be addressed, PD will be able to permit an expansion of end-stage kidney disease care in these countries.

Symptom Burden and Its Impact on Quality of Life in Patients With Moderate to Severe CKD: The International Chronic Kidney Disease Outcomes and Practice Patterns Study (CKDopps).

RATIONALE & OBJECTIVE: Recent evidence suggests substantial burden of symptoms experienced by people with non-dialysis chronic kidney disease (ND-CKD), but informative large-scale studies are scarce. We aimed to assess the prevalence of symptoms, and the association of overall symptom burden with quality of life in patients with moderate to severe CKD. STUDY DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: 4430 patients with ND-CKD stages 3-5 enrolled into the CKDopps Study in Brazil, France, and the US between 2013 and 2021. EXPOSURES: 13 individual patient-reported symptoms from the KDQOL-SF questionnaire and an overall symptom burden score (low, intermediate, and high). OUTCOMES: Physical and mental component summary scores (PCS, MCS) of the KDQOL-SF. ANALYTICAL APPROACH: Adjusted prevalence ratios and generalized estimating equations. RESULTS: Patients (mean age: 68 years; 40% women; mean baseline eGFR: 30 mL/min/1.73m2) were very much to extremely bothered by numerous symptoms ["soreness in muscles" (23%), "washed out or drained" (21%), "cramps, shortness of breath, dry skin, diminished sex life, or numbness in hands or feet" (14-17%)]. The adjusted prevalences of "cramps", "washed out or drained", "lack of appetite", "nausea/upset stomach", and "sex life" were greater with more severe CKD, and, except for "sex life", in women. A high overall symptom burden was more common in women, in France, and in patients with severe albuminuria and various comorbidities, but not with lower eGFR. PCS and MCS scores were 13.4 and 7.7 points lower, respectively, for high vs. low overall symptom burden. LIMITATIONS: Generalizability limited to patients under nephrology care, residual confounding and inaccurate Brazilian translation of some symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: The high symptom burden observed in this large cohort of ND-CKD patients across three diverse countries and its strong association with poorer HRQOL should inform clinical management of and clinical research in CKD.

Spiritual well-being and its relationship with patient characteristics and other patient-reported outcomes in peritoneal dialysis patients: Findings from the PDOPPS.

BACKGROUND: Spiritual well-being (SWB), an individual's understanding of the meaning and purpose of life, may help patients with chronic or terminal illnesses cope with their diseases. This study aimed to assess SWB in patients on peritoneal dialysis (PD), as well as its relationship with patient characteristics and patient-reported outcomes (PRO). METHODS: The data were obtained from questionnaires that formed part of the PD Outcomes and Practice Patterns Study (PDOPPS). Measures used in this study were SWB scores derived from the WHO quality of life, spirituality, religiousness and personal beliefs (WHOQOL-SRPB) tool including 32 items from eight facets; physical (PCS) and mental component summary (MCS) scores of the 12-Item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-12), Center of Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale-10 (CES-D-10) scores, burden of kidney disease scores and functional status scores. RESULTS: Overall, 529 out of 848 participants (62%) completely responded to the questionnaires and were included in the analysis. Over two-thirds of PD patients (70%) had moderate or higher SWB scores. The SWB scores were significantly lower in patients with age >65 years and unemployed status. SWB scores positively correlated with higher PCS, MCS, burden of kidney disease scores and functional status scores, while negatively correlated with depression scores by CES-D-10 scale. Patients who reported significant depressive symptoms (CES-D-10 score ≥ 10) had significantly lower SWB scores. CONCLUSION: Better SWB was significantly associated with better health-related QOL (HRQOL) and the absence of depressive symptoms. SWB may be an essential consideration in the delivery of high-quality PD.

High Oxalate Concentrations Correlate with Increased Risk for Sudden Cardiac Death in Dialysis Patients.

BACKGROUND: The clinical significance of accumulating toxic terminal metabolites such as oxalate in patients with kidney failure is not well understood. METHODS: To evaluate serum oxalate concentrations and risk of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events in a cohort of patients with kidney failure requiring chronic dialysis, we performed a post-hoc analysis of the randomized German Diabetes Dialysis (4D) Study; this study included 1255 European patients on hemodialysis with diabetes followed-up for a median of 4 years. The results obtained via Cox proportional hazards models were confirmed by competing risk regression and restricted cubic spline modeling in the 4D Study cohort and validated in a separate cohort of 104 US patients on dialysis after a median follow-up of 2.5 years. RESULTS: A total of 1108 patients had baseline oxalate measurements, with a median oxalate concentration of 42.4 µM. During follow-up, 548 patients died, including 139 (25.4%) from sudden cardiac death. A total of 413 patients reached the primary composite cardiovascular end point (cardiac death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, and fatal or nonfatal stroke). Patients in the highest oxalate quartile (≥59.7 µM) had a 40% increased risk for cardiovascular events (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR], 1.40; 95% confidence interval [95% CI], 1.08 to 1.81) and a 62% increased risk of sudden cardiac death (aHR, 1.62; 95% CI, 1.03 to 2.56), compared with those in the lowest quartile (≤29.6 µM). The associations remained when accounting for competing risks and with oxalate as a continuous variable. CONCLUSIONS: Elevated serum oxalate is a novel risk factor for cardiovascular events and sudden cardiac death in patients on dialysis. Further studies are warranted to test whether oxalate-lowering strategies improve cardiovascular mortality in patients on dialysis.

Strategic plan for integrated care of patients with kidney failure.

There is a huge gap between the number of patients worldwide requiring versus those actually receiving safe, sustainable, and equitable care for kidney failure. To address this, the International Society of Nephrology coordinated the development of a Strategic Plan for Integrated Care of Patients with Kidney Failure. Implementation of the plan will require engagement of the whole kidney community over the next 5-10 years.

Symptoms of Secondary Hyperparathyroidism in Patients Receiving Maintenance Hemodialysis: A Prospective Cohort Study.

RATIONALE & OBJECTIVE: Although multiple lines of evidence suggest a negative impact of secondary hyperparathyroidism on patients with kidney failure treated by hemodialysis, it is uncertain whether patients can detect associated symptoms. The objective was to determine whether changes in parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels are associated with changes in symptoms within this patient population. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort. SETTING & PARTICIPANTS: 165 adults with hyperparathyroidism secondary to kidney failure diagnosed, a range of dialysis vintages, and receiving regular hemodialysis from a US single-provider organization. EXPOSURE: Change in PTH levels over 24 weeks. OUTCOMES: 19 putative symptoms of secondary hyperparathyroidism measured up to 4 times using a self-administered questionnaire that assessed severity on a 5-level ordinal scale. ANALYTICAL APPROACH: Longitudinal associations between changes in PTH levels and symptom severity were assessed using generalized additive models. RESULTS: The 165 participants studied represented 81% of enrollees (N=204) who had sufficiently complete data for analysis. Mean age was 56 years and 54% were women. Increases in PTH levels over time were associated (P<0.1) with worsening of bone aches and stiffness, joint aches, muscle soreness, overall pain, itchy skin, and tiredness, and the effects were more pronounced with larger changes in PTH levels. LIMITATIONS: Findings may have been influenced by confounding by unmeasured comorbid conditions, concomitant medications, and multiple testing coupled with a P value threshold of 0.10. CONCLUSIONS: In this exploratory study, we observed that among patients with secondary hyperparathyroidism, increases in PTH levels over time were associated with worsening of 1 or more cluster of symptoms. Replication of these findings in other populations is needed before concluding about the magnitude and shape of these associations. If replicated, these findings could inform clinically useful approaches for measuring patient-reported outcomes related to secondary hyperparathyroidism.

Barriers to optimal peritoneal dialysis.

Peritoneal dialysis in the United States is underutilized when compared to the experience in other developed countries. The reasons for this are multifactorial and include government regulatory issues, the priority of dialysis facilities, and education and training of nephrology trainees and patients. The challenges to expanding PD in the United States are discussed and strategies to overcome the barriers are outlined.

Increasing access to integrated ESKD care as part of universal health coverage.

The global nephrology community recognizes the need for a cohesive strategy to address the growing problem of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). In March 2018, the International Society of Nephrology hosted a summit on integrated ESKD care, including 92 individuals from around the globe with diverse expertise and professional backgrounds. The attendees were from 41 countries, including 16 participants from 11 low- and lower-middle-income countries. The purpose was to develop a strategic plan to improve worldwide access to integrated ESKD care, by identifying and prioritizing key activities across 8 themes: (i) estimates of ESKD burden and treatment coverage, (ii) advocacy, (iii) education and training/workforce, (iv) financing/funding models, (v) ethics, (vi) dialysis, (vii) transplantation, and (viii) conservative care. Action plans with prioritized lists of goals, activities, and key deliverables, and an overarching performance framework were developed for each theme. Examples of these key deliverables include improved data availability, integration of core registry measures and analysis to inform development of health care policy; a framework for advocacy; improved and continued stakeholder engagement; improved workforce training; equitable, efficient, and cost-effective funding models; greater understanding and greater application of ethical principles in practice and policy; definition and application of standards for safe and sustainable dialysis treatment and a set of measurable quality parameters; and integration of dialysis, transplantation, and comprehensive conservative care as ESKD treatment options within the context of overall health priorities. Intended users of the action plans include clinicians, patients and their families, scientists, industry partners, government decision makers, and advocacy organizations. Implementation of this integrated and comprehensive plan is intended to improve quality and access to care and thereby reduce serious health-related suffering of adults and children affected by ESKD worldwide.

Measurement properties of the Short Form-36 (SF-36) and the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy - Anemia (FACT-An) in patients with anemia associated with chronic kidney disease.

BACKGROUND: Anemia is a common and debilitating manifestation of chronic kidney disease (CKD). Data from two clinical trials in patients with anemia of CKD were used to assess the measurement properties of the Medical Outcomes Survey Short Form-36 version 2 (hereafter SF-36) and the Functional Assessment of Cancer Therapy-Anemia (FACT-An). The Vitality and Physical functioning domains of the SF-36 and the FACT-An Total, Fatigue and Anemia subscales were identified as domains relevant to CKD-associated anemia. METHODS: A total of 204 patients aged 18-80 years were included in the analyses that included internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha), test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation coefficients [ICCs]), convergent and known-groups validity, responsiveness, and estimates of important change. RESULTS: Both the SF-36 and the FACT-An had strong psychometric properties with high internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha: 0.69-0.93 and 0.79-0.95), and test-retest reliability (ICCs: 0.64-0.83 and 0.72-0.88). Convergent validity, measured by correlation coefficients between similar concepts in SF-36 and FACT-An, ranged from 0.52 to 0.77. Correlations with hemoglobin (Hb) levels were modest at baseline; by Week 9, the correlations with Hb were somewhat higher, r = 0.23 (p < 0.05) for SF-36 Vitality, r = 0.22 (p < 0.05) for FACT-An Total, r = 0.26 (p < 0.001) for FACT-Fatigue and r = 0.22 (p < 0.01) for Anemia. Correlations with Hb at Week 13/17 were r = 0.28 (p < 0.001) for SF-36 Vitality and r = 0.25 (p < 0.05) for Role Physical; FACT-An Total correlation was r = 0.33 (p < 0.0001), Anemia was r = 0.28 (p < 0.001), and Fatigue was r = 0.30 (p < 0.001). The SF-36 domains and Component Summary scores (p < 0.05-p < 0.0001) demonstrated ability to detect change. For the FACT-An, significant differences (p < 0.05-p < 0.0001) were observed between responder and non-responder change scores: important change score estimates ranged from 2 to 4 for Vitality and 2-3 for Physical functioning. Important change scores were also estimated for the FACT-An Total score (6-9), the Anemia (3-5), and Fatigue subscale (2-4). CONCLUSIONS: Both the SF-36 Vitality and Physical function scales and the FACT-An Total, Fatigue and Anemia scales, are reliable and valid measures for assessing health-related quality of life in anemia associated with CKD.

Patients receiving frequent hemodialysis have better health-related quality of life compared to patients receiving conventional hemodialysis.

Most patients with end-stage kidney disease value their health-related quality of life (HRQoL) and want to know how it will be affected by their dialysis modality. We extended the findings of two prior clinical trial reports to estimate the effects of frequent compared to conventional hemodialysis on additional measures of HRQoL. The Daily Trial randomly assigned 245 patients to receive frequent (six times per week) or conventional (three times per week) in-center hemodialysis. The Nocturnal Trial randomly assigned 87 patients to receive frequent nocturnal (six times per week) or conventional (three times per week) home hemodialysis. All patients were on conventional hemodialysis prior to randomization, with an average feeling thermometer score of 70 to 75 (a visual analog scale from 0 to 100 where 100 is perfect health), an average general health scale score of 40 to 47 (a score from 0 to 100 where 100 is perfect health), and an average dialysis session recovery time of 2 to 3 hours. Outcomes are reported as the between-treatment group differences in one-year change in HRQoL measures and analyzed using linear mixed effects models. After one year in the Daily Trial, patients assigned to frequent in-center hemodialysis reported a higher feeling thermometer score, better general health, and a shorter recovery time after a dialysis session compared to standard thrice-weekly dialysis. After one year in the Nocturnal Trial, patients assigned to frequent home hemodialysis also reported a shorter recovery time after a dialysis session, but no statistical difference in their feeling thermometer or general health scores compared to standard home dialysis schedules. Thus, patients receiving day or nocturnal hemodialysis on average recovered approximately one hour earlier from a frequent compared to conventional hemodialysis session. Patients treated in an in-center dialysis facility reported better HRQoL with frequent compared to conventional hemodialysis.

Association between changes in quality of life and mortality in hemodialysis patients: results from the DOPPS.

Background: Cross-sectional health-related quality of life (HR-QOL) measures are associated with mortality in hemodialysis (HD) patients. The impact of changes in HR-QOL on outcomes remains unclear. We describe the association of prior changes in HR-QOL with subsequent mortality among HD patients. Methods: A total of 13 784 patients in the Dialysis Outcomes and Practice Patterns Study had more than one measurement of HR-QOL. The impact of changes between two measurements of the physical (PCS) and mental (MCS) component summary scores of the SF-12 on mortality was estimated with Cox regression. Results: Mean age was 62 years (standard deviation: 14 years); 59% were male and 32% diabetic. Median time between HR-QOL measurements was 12 months [interquartile range (IQR): 11, 14]. Median initial PCS and MCS scores were 37.5 (IQR: 29.4, 46.2) and 46.4 (IQR: 37.2, 54.9); median changes in PCS and MCS scores were -0.2 (IQR: -5.5, 4.7) and -0.1 (IQR: -6.8, 5.9), respectively. The adjusted hazard ratio (HR) for a 5-point decline in HR-QOL score was 1.09 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.06-1.12] for PCS and 1.05 (95% CI: 1.03-1.08) for MCS. Adjusting for the second QOL score, the change was not associated with mortality: HR = 1.01 (95% CI: 0.98-1.05) for delta PCS and 1.01 (95% CI: 0.98-1.03) for delta MCS. Categorizing the first and second scores as predictors, only the second PCS or MCS score was associated with mortality. Conclusions: In our study, only the most recent HR-QOL score was associated with mortality. Hence, the predictive power of a measurement of HR-QOL is not affected by changes in HR-QOL prior to that measurement; more frequent HR-QOL measurements are needed to improve the prediction of outcomes in HD. Further studies are needed to determine the optimal frequency and appropriate instrument to be used for serial measurements.

Tryptophan and Kynurenine Levels and Its Association With Sleep, Nonphysical Fatigue, and Depression in Chronic Hemodialysis Patients.

OBJECTIVE: Sleep and mood disorders are common in hemodialysis (HD) patients and the pathophysiology is still unclear. Tryptophan (TRP) and its metabolites may play a prominent role in neural pathways related to sleep, fatigue, and depression. Here, we sought to compare the levels of TRP and its metabolites between HD patients and healthy subjects and examine their association with sleep, fatigue, and depression in HD patients. The design was cross-sectional analysis. SUBJECTS: Ninety-nine adult patients on stable thrice weekly HD schedule between September 2011 and March 2014 and 10 healthy controls. INTERVENTION: Venous blood samples were drawn in healthy subjects and immediately before dialysis in chronic HD patients. TRP and kynurenine (KYN) metabolites were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography. The Medical Outcomes Study Sleep Scale, the PROMIS Short form Fatigue, and the Patient Health Questionnaire were administered concurrently. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Sleep, fatigue, and depression as assessed by subjective questionnaire. RESULTS: TRP levels were significantly lower (52.4 ± 15.2 vs. 67.9 ± 3.1 µmol/L; P < .0001) and KYN (3.2 ± 1.2 vs. 1.4 ± 0.1 µmol/L; P < .0001) were significantly higher in the 99 HD patients relative to 10 healthy controls. In HD patients, higher KYN levels were correlated with worse depression and fatigue scores (r2 = 0.23 and 0.21; P ≤ .05, respectively). We found no association between TRP and KYN/TRP ratio with sleep disturbances, fatigue, and depression in HD patients. CONCLUSIONS: Our study indicates disturbed TRP metabolism in HD patients, but low TRP levels were not related with sleep disturbances, depression, and fatigue. In contrast, KYN levels, a metabolite of TRP, were much higher in HD patients compared with controls, and higher KYN associated with depression and fatigue. Further studies exploring the biological and functional consequences of increased TRP catabolism in HD patients are warranted.

Acute Kidney Injury in Low-Resource Settings: Barriers to Diagnosis, Awareness, and Treatment and Strategies to Overcome These Barriers.

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is increasingly recognized as a major health problem worldwide, responsible for an estimated 1.4 million deaths per year. The occurrence of and approach to AKI in low-resource settings (LRS) present special challenges due to often limited health care resources, including insufficient numbers of trained personnel, diagnostic tools, and treatment options. Although the International Society of Nephrology set a goal of eliminating preventable deaths from AKI by 2025, implementation of this program in LRS presents major challenges not only because of the lack of resources, but also because of the lack of awareness of the impact of AKI on patient outcomes, factors that are complicated by the challenge of cognitively dissociating the care of patients with AKI from the care of patients with chronic kidney failure. To better understand how to increase the awareness of AKI and develop strategies to improve the identification and treatment of patients with AKI in LRS, we administered an 18-item web-based questionnaire to physicians actively engaged in providing nephrology care in LRS. A checklist was then developed of meaningful and targeted approaches for implementation, with focus on engaging local and regional stakeholders, developing education programs and appropriate guidelines, enhancing training of health care workers, expanding health care resources, linking with other regional health care projects, and broadening research opportunities.

Intensive Hemodialysis and Health-Related Quality of Life.

Diminished health-related quality of life (HRQoL) is common in dialysis patients and associated with increased risks for morbidity and mortality. Patients may present limitations in both physical and mental HRQoL. Poor physical HRQoL may be defined by limited physical function, role limitations due to physical health, dissatisfaction with physical ability, and impaired mobility. Sleep disorders such as obstructive sleep apnea, restless legs, and fatigue are typical manifestations of poor physical HRQoL in dialysis patients. Poor mental HRQoL may be defined by depressive thinking, lack of positive affect, anxiety, and feelings of social isolation. The prevalence of depression is high in dialysis patients. Intensive hemodialysis (HD) can positively address HRQoL. In 3 randomized clinical trials, relative to conventional HD, intensive HD increased physical and mental component summary scores from the 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36), although individual treatment effects of daily nocturnal HD were not statistically significant. In another large prospective study, initiation of short daily HD therapy was followed after 12 months by improvements in all SF-36 domains, sleep quality, and restless legs symptoms. In a small study of nocturnal HD, apnea and hypopnea episodes per hour decreased by almost 70% after conversion from conventional HD. Intensive HD is also associated with a large reduction in postdialysis recovery time. In contrast, 2 randomized clinical trials failed to demonstrate statistically significant effects of intensive HD on the Beck Depression Inventory score despite a significant decrease in Beck Depression Inventory score in the prospective study of short daily HD. Furthermore, intensive HD may not improve objective physical performance and can increase burden on caregivers in the home setting. In conclusion, intensive HD potentially can address both physical and mental aspects of poor HRQoL relative to conventional HD. However, more studies are needed to understand the effects of intensive HD, including specific schedules, on HRQoL.

The effect of frequent hemodialysis on self-reported sleep quality: Frequent Hemodialysis Network Trials.

BACKGROUND: Many patients who receive maintenance hemodialysis experience poor sleep. Uncontrolled studies suggest frequent hemodialysis improves sleep quality, which is a strong motivation for some patients to undertake the treatment. We studied the effects of frequent in-center ('daily') and nocturnal home hemodialysis on self-reported sleep quality in two randomized trials. METHODS: Participants were randomly assigned to frequent (six times per week) or conventional (three times per week) hemodialysis in the Frequent Hemodialysis Network Daily (n = 245) and Nocturnal (n = 87) Trials. We used the Medical Outcomes Study Sleep Problems Index II (SPI II), a validated and reliable instrument in patients with end-stage renal disease, to measure self-reported sleep quality. The SPI II is scored from 0-100, with a higher value indicating poorer quality of sleep. A mean relative decline in SPI II would suggest improved sleep quality. The primary sleep outcome was the change in the SPI II score over 12 months. RESULTS: In the Daily Trial, after adjustment for baseline SPI II, subjects randomized to frequent as compared with conventional in-center hemodialysis experienced a 4.2 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.4-8.0] point adjusted mean relative decline in SPI II at 4 months and a 2.6 (95% CI -2.3-7.5) point adjusted mean relative decline at 12 months. In the Nocturnal Trial, subjects randomized to frequent nocturnal as compared with conventional home hemodialysis experienced 2.9 (95% CI -3.4-9.3) and 4.5 (95% CI -3.2-12.2) point mean relative declines at Months 4 and 12, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Although a possible benefit of frequent in-center hemodialysis was observed at 4 months, neither frequent in-center hemodialysis nor home nocturnal hemodialysis demonstrated significant improvements in self-reported sleep quality compared with conventional hemodialysis at 12 months.

We Use Bioincompatible Peritoneal Dialysis Solutions.

Despite advances in peritoneal dialysis (PD) technique and therapy over the last 40 years, PD therapy for end-stage renal disease (ESRD) in the United States remains underutilized. One of the major factors contributing to this underutilization involves concerns about technique failure. More physiologic PD solutions, with a lower concentration of glucose degradation products and a neutral pH, exist and are readily available in Europe, Asia, and Australia. Several benefits of these biocompatible solutions exist over the conventional solutions including a slower decline in residual renal function and better maintenance of urine volumes. There may also be a beneficial effect of the biocompatible solutions in limiting the increase in peritoneal transport that is characteristic of patients maintained on conventional solutions. It should be of concern to the US nephrology community that biocompatible PD solutions are unavailable in the United States.

Serum sodium levels and patient outcomes in an ambulatory clinic-based chronic kidney disease cohort.

BACKGROUND: Chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients are prone to both hypo- and hypernatremia. Little has been published on the epidemiology of hypo- and hypernatremia in ambulatory patients with non-dialysis CKD. METHODS: Data collected in two contemporaneous CKD cohort studies, the Renal Research Institute (RRI)-CKD study (n = 834) and the Study of Treatment of Renal Insufficiency: Data and Evaluation (STRIDE) (n = 1,348) were combined and analyzed to study the association between serum sodium (Na(+)) and clinical outcomes. RESULTS: Baseline estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and Na(+) were 26 ± 11 ml/min/1.73 m(2) and 140.2 ± 3.4 mEq/l, respectively. The prevalence of Na(+) ≤135 mEq/l and ≥144 mEq/l was 6 and 16%, respectively. Higher baseline Na(+) was significantly associated with male sex, older age, systolic blood pressure, BMI, serum albumin, presence of heart failure, and lower eGFR. The risk of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) was marginally significantly higher among patients with Na(+) ≤135 mEq/l, compared with 140< Na(+) <144 mEq/l (referent), in time-dependent models (adjusted hazard ratio, HR = 1.52, p = 0.06). Mortality risk was significantly greater at 135< Na(+) ≤140 mEq/l (adjusted HR = 1.68, p = 0.02) and Na(+) ≥144 mEq/l (adjusted HR = 2.01, p = 0.01). CONCLUSION: CKD patients with Na(+) ≤135 mEq/l were at a higher risk for progression to ESRD, whereas both lower and higher Na(+) levels were associated with a higher risk of mortality. While caring for CKD patients, greater attention to serum sodium levels by clinicians is warranted and could potentially help improve patient outcomes.

Understanding acute kidney injury in low resource settings: a step forward.

Attention has recently been focused on addressing the problem of acute kidney injury in both the developed and developing world. Little information is actually available on the incidence and management of AKI in low resource settings. Thus, the paper by Bagasha in the current issue of BMC Nephrology makes an important contribution to our understanding of this serious and potentially remediable problem.