Bioresponsive polymer coated drug nanorods for breast cancer treatment.

Ineffective drug release at the target site is among the top challenges for cancer treatment. This reflects the facts that interaction with the physiological condition can denature active ingredients of drugs, and low delivery to the disease microenvironment leads to poor therapeutic outcomes. We hypothesize that depositing a thin layer of bioresponsive polymer on the surface of drug nanoparticles would not only protect drugs from degradation but also allow the release of drugs at the target site. Here, we report a one-step process to prepare bioresponsive polymer coated drug nanorods (NRs) from liquid precursors using the solvent diffusion method. A thin layer (10.3 ± 1.4 nm) of poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) polymer coating was deposited on the surface of camptothecin (CPT) anti-cancer drug NRs. The mean size of PCL-coated CPT NRs was 500.9 ± 91.3 nm length × 122.7 ± 10.1 nm width. The PCL polymer coating was biodegradable at acidic pH 6 as determined by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. CPT drugs were released up to 51.5% when PCL coating dissolved into non-toxic carboxyl and hydroxyl groups. Trastuzumab (TTZ), a humanized IgG monoclonal antibody, was conjugated to the NR surface for breast cancer cell targeting. Combination treatments using CPT and TTZ decreased the HER-2 positive BT-474 breast cancer cell growth by 66.9 ± 5.3% in vitro. These results suggest effective combination treatments of breast cancer cells using bioresponsive polymer coated drug delivery.

Adsorption of diblock polypeptides on polystyrene latex.

The adsorption of peptides at solid/liquid interfaces is affected by peptide/surface and peptide/peptide hydrophobic and electrostatic forces. Three diblock copolypeptides and two homopeptides were adsorbed on poly(styrene) nanospheres from water, water/methanol, and water/glycerol mixtures at different pH's to study both of these effects. Peptides with one hydrophilic (glutamic acid or lysine) and one nonpolar block (alanine) or with both hydrophilic blocks with opposite charges (glutamic acid and lysine) were chemically synthesized and used as adsorbates in this study. The amount adsorbed was determined, and dynamic light scattering (DLS) was used to measure the adsorbed layer thickness. It was found that peptide/surface and peptide/peptide electrostatic interactions dominate the adsorption process. Hydrophobic forces also play a role, but secondary to electrostatic forces. Positively charged blocks show high affinity for the surface, whereas negatively charged blocks were excluded from it. Poly(Lys) has the highest affinity by the surface, while (Glu)(14)-b-(Ala)(5) has the lowest. Adsorption of all peptides was inhibited by methanol and promoted by glycerol. The adsorption for (Lys)(5)-b-(Glu)(6) was extremely sensitive to pH, irrespective of cosolvent, whereas the thickness for (Lys)(30)-b-(Ala)(41) was sensitive to pH as well as cosolvent. Aggregation was observed in the presence of the nanosurfaces but not in the bulk peptides under some pH and solvent conditions.

Effect of Differences in the Primary Structure of the A-Chain on the Aggregation of Insulin Fragments.

Bovine and human insulin have similar primary structures. In this article, the region of the insulin A-chain of bovine and human insulin where the amino acid composition is different was studied. Bovine insulin fragment (BIF) and human insulin fragment (HIF) were synthesized in solid-phase peptide synthesis. The effects of pH, temperature, urea, ionic strength, and stirring on the formation of fibrils were studied using a fractional factorial resolution III experimental design. Fibrillation was monitored by fluorescence and infrared spectroscopy and optical microscopy. Both fragments formed fibrils at pH 1.6 and a temperature of 60 °C. The lag time and apparent aggregation growth rate constant were determined using a two-parameter kinetic model. It was found that the bovine insulin fragment has a shorter lag time than the human insulin one, whereas the exponential phase rate was faster for HIF than for BIF. An increase in ß-sheets content with time was observed in both fragments. The increase in ß-sheets was preceded by an initial decrease in α-helices followed by an intermediate increase during the transition from the lag phase to elongation phase. Temperature and ionic strength are among the most important experimental factors during the lag phase, whereas ionic strength is replaced by pH during the elongation phase for both the fragments. Congo red binding confirmed the presence of ringlike oligomer structures rich in antiparallel ß-sheets, which tend to form fibrils rich in parallel ß-sheets.

Surface enrichment of proteins at quartz/water interfaces: a neutron reflectivity study.

Neutron reflectivity (NR) was used to study the adsorption of human serum albumin and human fibrinogen on quartz. The proteins were individually and sequentially adsorbed from heavy water and heavy water/methanol mixtures at pH 4 and 7.0. The technique allows for the subnanometer resolution of the adsorbed layer thickness and gross morphology. Under the conditions of our measurements we found that fibrinogen formed a distinct layer that we interpret as a mat of the protein three layers thick whereas albumin formed only diffuse layers. The adsorption pattern of the two proteins changed radically when one protein was adsorbed on top of the other (previously adsorbed). In general our measurements indicate that the adsorbed protein layers on quartz are rather loosely bound and that these layers, incorporating as much as 80% water, extend further into the bulk fluid than might have been expected.

Distribution of cells between solid/liquid and liquid/liquid interfaces.

The use of aqueous two-phase systems (ATPSs) and each system's individual phase-forming species to prevent Streptococcus sanguis attachment onto hydroxyapatite discs was explored. The strategy that we followed was to attach the cells to a solid surface in the presence of an additional interface. Conditions under which, simultaneously, the phase-forming species form two phases and the cells proliferate were identified. Growth curves were constructed in the presence of various polymers and salts commonly used to prepare ATPSs. Several aqueous two-phase systems were selected such that bacterial growth was comparable to that observed in pure medium. Cells were allowed to attach to hydroxyapatite discs for 7 days in the presence of varying concentrations of media, media with polymer, media with salt, and media with ATPS. Streptococcus sanguis attachment to the disks was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy. The addition of a PEG/Na(2)SO(4) ATPS to high concentrations of yeast-tryptone (YT) media (>65%) and of a PEG/MgSO(4) ATPS to nutrient-limited media reduces surface coverage of S. sanguis to less than 10%. Comparison of the attachment levels for the systems containing PEG/Na(2)SO(4) to media containing the individual phase-forming species and to the YT reference systems indicated that nutrient availability did not affect attachment.

Aggregation and denaturation of antibodies: a capillary electrophoresis, dynamic light scattering, and aqueous two-phase partitioning study.

Protein denaturation and aggregation are well-known problems in the pharmaceutical industry. As the protein aggregates, it loses its biological activity and creates problems in its administration to patients. In this paper, we explore the use of aqueous two-phase systems, capillary zone electrophoresis, and dynamic light scattering for the monitoring of protein denaturation and aggregation. Our studies focus on human IgG and HSA. Capillary zone electrophoresis was used to monitor changes in the charge to size ratio of the proteins upon denaturation and dynamic light scattering was used to detect the presence of any aggregates and to monitor the size of the proteins. The information obtained from aqueous two-phase partitioning is similar to that obtained from capillary zone electrophoresis. The simplicity of aqueous two-phase system and its low cost (compared to the other analytical techniques) suggest that it can be routinely used for the quality control of some pharmaceutical preparations.

Decontamination of surfaces by lysozyme encapsulated in reverse micelles.

Cells and enzymes can be used to decontaminate soil, water supplies, personal equipment, weapons and hospital equipment that have been exposed to bacteria, toxins or viruses. One of the problems associated with the use of microorganisms and enzymes for decontamination purposes is that the presence of water is not acceptable for some applications such as electronic equipment. One way of circumventing this problem is to allow the enzyme to distribute between a water phase and an organic phase-containing surfactant and then use the encapsulated enzyme in reverse micelles directly into the device to be clean. Reverse micelles were used to deliver the enzyme (lysozyme) to the cell-surface interface. They serve as a way to increase the local concentration of lysozyme and decrease the amount of water delivered. Specifically, we explored the lysis by free lysozyme and lysozyme encapsulated in reverse micelles of Klebsiella pneumoniae and Staphylococcus epidermidis attached to steel, glass, and hydroxyapatite. These two bacteria have been selected because they are known to be pathogenic and because of their differences in cell wall structure. Lysozyme was added to the surfaces in either reverse micelles or as a free solution and was tested under conditions of stirring and no stirring. Stirring was implemented to study the interplay between mass transfer limitations and surface roughness. We have shown that free lysozyme or lysozyme encapsulated in reverse micelles is capable of decontaminating surfaces of different texture. Lysis of the cells is slower when the encapsulated enzyme is used but lysis is more complete.

Enzymatic synthesis and characterization of l-methionine and 2-hydroxy-4-(methylthio)butanoic acid (HMB) co-oligomers.

Oligomers of l-methionine (Met) and its hydroxy analogue, 2-hydroxy-4-(methylthio)butanoic acid (d,l-HMB) were synthesized with the proteolytic enzyme papain. The Met homooligomers and HMB-Met co-oligomers obtained through the enzymatic reactions were subjected to persulfonation and separated with reverse phase liquid chromatography (RPLC). The separated oligomers were characterized with electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). The oligomers were also characterized with matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). The results showed that co-oligomers were predominantly composed of 4-8 Met residues and one HMB residue. The data also suggest that in the co-oligomers, HMB is attached at the N-terminal end of the oligopeptide chain.

Effect of cosolvents on the adsorption of peptides at the solid-liquid interface.

The adsorption of a peptide at solid surfaces is the result of a complex interplay of interactions between the peptide, solvent, and surface. In this work, Monte Carlo simulations were performed to evaluate the effect of the solvent hydrogen bonding ability on the adsorption of the peptide ASP(1)-ASP(2)-ILE(3)-ILE(4)-ASP(5)-ASP(6)-ILE(7)-ILE(8) at a charged surface consisting of CH(2) atoms with a fixed lattice arrangement. Various water-alcohol mixtures were used as solvent because alcohols are known to alter the dielectric constant, hydrophobicity, and hydrogen bonding capacity of water. Solvent-solvent, solvent-surface, solvent-peptide, and peptide-surface interactions were studied independently and correlated with the observed peptide behavior at the solvent-surface interface. We concluded that the behavior (and orientation) of the peptide at the surface is directly related to changes in water-water hydrogen bonding properties in water-alcohol mixtures. In the presence of increasing concentrations of methanol, the strength of solvent-peptide and solvent-surface interactions was reduced, and as a result, a stronger interaction between the peptide and the surface was observed. Stronger solvent-peptide and solvent-surface interactions were responsible for a weaker interaction of the peptide with the surface in the presence of increasing concentrations of glycerol. These results suggest that by changing solvent conditions it is possible to finely tune the orientation of a macromolecule at solid/liquid interfaces.

On one-dimensional self-assembly of surfactant-coated nanoparticles.

Nanometer-sized metal and semiconductor particles possess novel properties. To fully realize their potential, these nanoparticles need to be fabricated into ordered arrays or predesigned structures. A promising nanoparticle fabrication method is coupled surface passivation and self-assembly of surfactant-coated nanoparticles. Due to the empirical procedure and partially satisfactory results, this method still represents a major challenge to date and its refinement can benefit from fundamental understanding. Existing evidences suggest that the self-assembly of surfactant-coated nanoparticles is induced by surfactant-modified interparticle interactions and follows an intrinsic road map such that short one-dimensional (1D) chain arrays of nanoparticles occur first as a stable intermediate before further assembly takes place to form higher dimensional close-packed superlattices. Here we report a study employing fundamental analyses and Brownian dynamics simulations to elucidate the underlying pair interaction potential that drives the nanoparticle self-assembly via 1D arrays. We find that a pair potential which has a longer-ranged repulsion and reflects the effects of surfactant chain interdigitation on the dynamics is effective in producing and stabilizing nanoparticle chain arrays. The resultant potential energy surface is isotropic for dispersed nanoparticles but becomes anisotropic to favor the growth of linear chain arrays when self-assembly starts.

Ethylene oxide and propylene oxide random copolymer/sodium chloride aqueous two-phase systems: wetting and adsorption on dodecyl-agarose and polystyrene.

Liquid/liquid partition chromatography is a mild yet powerful separation method for a variety of biological materials. This work demonstrates that it should be feasible to immobilize an ethylene oxide-propylene oxide (EO/PO) random copolymer solution and to use a solution of NaCl equilibrated against the polymer solution as the mobile-phase (poly (EO-PO) [P(EO-PO)] and NaCl form two aqueous phases known as aqueous two-phase systems). Three random copolymers with different molecular weights and EO/PO ratios were used. Dodecyl-agarose and polystyrene were tested as possible supports. The wetting energies of the aqueous two-phase systems on these two kinds of surfaces were calculated as well as contact angles for each phase on the same surfaces. Finally, the thickness of P(EO-PO) adsorption layers on polystyrene lattices were measured by dynamic light scattering. Contact angle measurements indicate that indeed some EO/PO copolymers preferentially wet hydrophobic substrates, forming thin films.

Computer simulations and neutron reflectivity of proteins at interfaces.

Computer simulations in conjunction with neutron reflectivity is an excellent combination for the study of biological materials at solid-liquid interfaces: Both techniques have excellent resolution levels (Angströms) and they are mature. A stronger interaction between physicists and biologists will allow the use of these two approaches in topics of biological-biomedical interest.

Conformational changes of peptides at solid/liquid interfaces: a Monte Carlo study.

Monte Carlo simulations were performed to study the conformational changes of negatively charged model peptides dissolved in water adsorbed onto charged surfaces. 8-, 16-, and 20-residues peptides were used, each of them consisted of repeating diblock units of aspartic acid (ASP, polar amino acid) and isoleucine (ILE, nonpolar amino acid) residues. We found that a water patch was retained at the charged surface, separating the peptide from it. We believed that these water molecules were primarily responsible for giving a particular orientation to the peptide at the surface. Water did play a role to some extent in the structural stability of the 8-residues peptide. However, for higher chain lengths (16-residues and 20-residues), the intrinsic hydrogen-bonding network (or intrinsic structural stability) showed a predominant effect over hydrophobic dehydration for the stability of the peptide at the surface.