Correction: Striatopallidal neurons control avoidance behavior in exploratory tasks.

A correction to this paper has been published and can be accessed via a link at the top of the paper.

Striatopallidal neurons control avoidance behavior in exploratory tasks.

The dorsal striatum has been linked to decision-making under conflict, but the mechanism by which striatal neurons contribute to approach-avoidance conflicts remains unclear. We hypothesized that striatopallidal dopamine D2 receptor (D2R)-expressing neurons promote avoidance, and tested this hypothesis in two exploratory approach-avoidance conflict paradigms in mice: the elevated zero maze and open field. Genetic elimination of D2Rs on striatopallidal neurons (iMSNs), but not other neural populations, increased avoidance of the open areas in both tasks, in a manner that was dissociable from global changes in movement. Population calcium activity of dorsomedial iMSNs was disrupted in mice lacking D2Rs on iMSNs, suggesting that disrupted output of iMSNs contributes to heightened avoidance behavior. Consistently, artificial disruption of iMSN output with optogenetic stimulation heightened avoidance of open areas of these tasks, while inhibition of iMSN output reduced avoidance. We conclude that dorsomedial striatal iMSNs control approach-avoidance conflicts in exploratory tasks, and highlight this neural population as a potential target for reducing avoidance in anxiety disorders.

An acute, epitope-specific modification in the dopamine transporter associated with methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity.

Preclinical studies demonstrate that repeated, high-dose methamphetamine administrations rapidly decrease plasmalemmal dopamine uptake, which may contribute to aberrant dopamine accumulation, reactive species generation, and long-term dopaminergic deficits. The present study extends these findings by demonstrating a heretofore unreported, epitope-specific modification in the dopamine transporter caused by a methamphetamine regimen that induces these deficits. Specifically, repeated, high-dose methamphetamine injections (4 × 10 mg/kg/injection, 2-h intervals) rapidly decreased immunohistochemical detection of striatal dopamine transporter as assessed 1 h after the final methamphetamine exposure. In contrast, neither a single high dose (1 × 10 mg/kg) nor repeated injections of a lower dose (4 × 2 mg/kg/injection) induced this change. The high-dose regimen-induced alteration was only detected using antibodies directed against the N-terminus. Immunohistochemical staining using antibodies directed against the C-terminus did not reveal any changes. The high-dose regimen also did not alter dopamine transporter expression as assessed using [(125) I]RTI-55 autoradiography. These data suggest that the repeated, high-dose methamphetamine regimen alters the N-terminus of the dopamine transporter. Further, these data may be predictive of persistent dopamine deficits caused by the stimulant. Future studies of the signaling cascades involved should provide novel insight into potential mechanisms underlying the physiological and pathophysiological regulation of the dopamine transporter.

Glial reactivity in resistance to methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity.

Neurotoxic regimens of methamphetamine (METH) result in reactive microglia and astrocytes in striatum. Prior data indicate that rats with partial dopamine (DA) loss resulting from prior exposure to METH are resistant to further decreases in striatal DA when re-exposed to METH 30 days later. Such resistant animals also do not show an activated microglia phenotype, suggesting a relation between microglial activation and METH-induced neurotoxicity. To date, the astrocyte response in such resistance has not been examined. Thus, this study examined glial-fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) and CD11b protein expression in striata of animals administered saline or a neurotoxic regimen of METH on post-natal days 60 and/or 90 (Saline:Saline, Saline:METH, METH:Saline, METH:METH). Consistent with previous work, animals experiencing acute toxicity (Saline:METH) showed both activated microglia and astocytes, whereas those resistant to the acute toxicity (METH:METH) did not show activated microglia. Interestingly, GFAP expression remained elevated in rats exposed to METH at PND60 (METH:Saline), and was not elevated further in resistant rats treated for the second time with METH (METH:METH). These data suggest that astrocytes remain reactive up to 30 days post-METH exposure. In addition, these data indicate that astrocyte reactivity does not reflect acute, METH-induced DA terminal toxicity, whereas microglial reactivity does.

Expression and activity of nitric oxide synthase isoforms in methamphetamine-induced striatal dopamine toxicity.

Nitric oxide is implicated in methamphetamine (METH)-induced neurotoxicity; however, the source of the nitric oxide has not been identified. Previous work has also revealed that animals with partial dopamine loss induced by a neurotoxic regimen of methamphetamine fail to exhibit further decreases in striatal dopamine when re-exposed to methamphetamine 7-30 days later. The current study examined nitric oxide synthase expression and activity and protein nitration in striata of animals administered saline or neurotoxic regimens of methamphetamine at postnatal days 60 and/or 90, resulting in four treatment groups: Saline:Saline, METH:Saline, Saline:METH, and METH:METH. Acute administration of methamphetamine on postnatal day 90 (Saline:METH and METH:METH) increased nitric oxide production, as evidenced by increased protein nitration. Methamphetamine did not, however, change the expression of endothelial or inducible isoforms of nitric oxide synthase, nor did it change the number of cells positive for neuronal nitric oxide synthase mRNA expression or the amount of neuronal nitric oxide synthase mRNA per cell. However, nitric oxide synthase activity in striatal interneurons was increased in the Saline:METH and METH:METH animals. These data suggest that increased nitric oxide production after a neurotoxic regimen of methamphetamine results from increased nitric oxide synthase activity, rather than an induction of mRNA, and that constitutively expressed neuronal nitric oxide synthase is the most likely source of nitric oxide after methamphetamine administration. Of interest, animals rendered resistant to further methamphetamine-induced dopamine depletions still show equivalent degrees of methamphetamine-induced nitric oxide production, suggesting that nitric oxide production alone in response to methamphetamine is not sufficient to induce acute neurotoxic injury.

Extrapolation as a Default Strategy in Pediatric Drug Development.

Pediatric drug development lags adult development by about 8 years (Mulugeta et al. in Pediatr Clin 64(6):1185-1196, 2017). In such context, many incentives, regulations, and innovative techniques have been proposed to address the disparity for pediatric patients. One such strategy is extrapolation of efficacy from a reference population. Extrapolation is currently justified by providing evidence in support of the effective use of drugs in children when the course of the disease and the expected treatment response would be sufficiently similar in the pediatric and reference population. This paper's position is that, despite uncertainties, pediatric drug development programs should initially assume some degree of extrapolation. The degree to which extrapolation can be used lies along a continuum representing the uncertainties to be addressed through generation of new pediatric evidence. In addressing these uncertainties, the extrapolation strategy should reflect the level of tolerable uncertainty concerning the decision to expose a child to the risks of a new drug. This judgment about the level of tolerable uncertainty should vary with the context (e.g., disease severity, existing therapeutic options) and can be embedded into pediatric drug development archetypes to ascertain the extent of studies needed and whether simultaneous development for adults and adolescents be considered.

Increases in Physical Activity Result in Diminishing Increments in Daily Energy Expenditure in Mice.

Exercise is a common component of weight loss strategies, yet exercise programs are associated with surprisingly small changes in body weight [1-4]. This may be due in part to compensatory adaptations, in which calories expended during exercise are counteracted by decreases in other aspects of energy expenditure [1, 5-10]. Here we examined the relationship between a rodent model of voluntary exercise- wheel running- and total daily energy expenditure. Use of a running wheel for 3 to 7 days increased daily energy expenditure, resulting in a caloric deficit of ∼1 kcal/day; however, total daily energy expenditure remained stable after the first week of wheel access, despite further increases in wheel use. We hypothesized that compensatory mechanisms accounted for the lack of increase in daily energy expenditure after the first week. Supporting this idea, we observed a decrease in off-wheel ambulation when mice were using the wheels, indicating behavioral compensation. Finally, we asked whether individual variation in wheel use within a group of mice would be associated with different levels of daily energy expenditure. Despite a large variation in wheel running, we did not observe a significant relationship between the amount of daily wheel running and total daily energy expenditure or energy intake across mice. Together, our experiments support a model in which the transition from sedentary to light activity is associated with an increase in daily energy expenditure, but further increases in physical activity produce diminishingly small increments in daily energy expenditure.

Basal Ganglia Dysfunction Contributes to Physical Inactivity in Obesity.

Obesity is associated with physical inactivity, which exacerbates the health consequences of weight gain. However, the mechanisms that mediate this association are unknown. We hypothesized that deficits in dopamine signaling contribute to physical inactivity in obesity. To investigate this, we quantified multiple aspects of dopamine signaling in lean and obese mice. We found that D2-type receptor (D2R) binding in the striatum, but not D1-type receptor binding or dopamine levels, was reduced in obese mice. Genetically removing D2Rs from striatal medium spiny neurons was sufficient to reduce motor activity in lean mice, whereas restoring Gi signaling in these neurons increased activity in obese mice. Surprisingly, although mice with low D2Rs were less active, they were not more vulnerable to diet-induced weight gain than control mice. We conclude that deficits in striatal D2R signaling contribute to physical inactivity in obesity, but inactivity is more a consequence than a cause of obesity.

Do Dopaminergic Impairments Underlie Physical Inactivity in People with Obesity?

Obesity is associated with physical inactivity, which exacerbates the negative health consequences of obesity. Despite a wide consensus that people with obesity should exercise more, there are few effective methods for increasing physical activity in people with obesity. This lack is reflected in our limited understanding of the cellular and molecular causes of physical inactivity in obesity. We hypothesize that impairments in dopamine signaling contribute to physical inactivity in people with obesity, as in classic movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease. Here, we review two lines of evidence supporting this hypothesis: (1) chronic exposure to obesogenic diets has been linked to impairments in dopamine synthesis, release, and receptor function, particularly in the striatum, and (2) striatal dopamine is necessary for the proper control of movement. Identifying the biological determinants of physical inactivity may lead to more effective strategies for increasing physical activity in people with obesity, as well as improve our understanding of why it is difficult for people with obesity to alter their levels of physical activity.

Enhanced GABA Transmission Drives Bradykinesia Following Loss of Dopamine D2 Receptor Signaling.

Bradykinesia is a prominent phenotype of Parkinson's disease, depression, and other neurological conditions. Disruption of dopamine (DA) transmission plays an important role, but progress in understanding the exact mechanisms driving slowness of movement has been impeded due to the heterogeneity of DA receptor distribution on multiple cell types within the striatum. Here we show that selective deletion of DA D2 receptors (D2Rs) from indirect-pathway medium spiny neurons (iMSNs) is sufficient to impair locomotor activity, phenocopying DA depletion models of Parkinson's disease, despite this mouse model having intact DA transmission. There was a robust enhancement of GABAergic transmission and a reduction of in vivo firing in striatal and pallidal neurons. Mimicking D2R signaling in iMSNs with Gi-DREADDs restored the level of tonic GABAergic transmission and rescued the motor deficit. These findings indicate that DA, through D2R activation in iMSNs, regulates motor output by constraining the strength of GABAergic transmission.

Quantifying recording quality in in vivo striatal recordings.

The striatum mediates a variety of functions including movement, decision-making, motivation, and reward learning. In vivo recording is a powerful technique that allows for the interrogation of these striatal functions while an animal is awake and behaving. Here, we describe equipment needed and general setup for performing in vivo electrophysiology experiments, data processing, and quantification of recording quality. While this protocol is focused on striatal recordings, concepts should translate to other structures as well.

Nucleus accumbens medium spiny neuron subtypes mediate depression-related outcomes to social defeat stress.

BACKGROUND: The nucleus accumbens is a critical mediator of depression-related outcomes to social defeat stress. Previous studies demonstrate distinct neuroplasticity adaptations in the two medium spiny neuron (MSN) subtypes, those enriched in dopamine receptor D1 versus dopamine receptor D2, in reward and reinforcement leading to opposing roles for these MSNs in these behaviors. However, the distinct roles of nucleus accumbens MSN subtypes, in depression, remain poorly understood. METHODS: Using whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiology, we examined excitatory input to MSN subtypes and intrinsic excitability measures in D1-green fluorescent protein and D2-green fluorescent protein bacterial artificial chromosome transgenic mice that underwent chronic social defeat stress (CSDS). Optogenetic and pharmacogenetic approaches were used to bidirectionally alter firing of D1-MSNs or D2-MSNs after CSDS or before a subthreshold social defeat stress in D1-Cre or D2-Cre bacterial artificial chromosome transgenic mice. RESULTS: We demonstrate that the frequency of excitatory synaptic input is decreased in D1-MSNs and increased in D2-MSNs in mice displaying depression-like behaviors after CSDS. Enhancing activity in D1-MSNs results in resilient behavioral outcomes, while inhibition of these MSNs induces depression-like outcomes after CSDS. Bidirectional modulation of D2-MSNs does not alter behavioral responses to CSDS; however, repeated activation of D2-MSNs in stress naïve mice induces social avoidance following subthreshold social defeat stress. CONCLUSIONS: Our studies uncover novel functions of MSN subtypes in depression-like outcomes. Notably, bidirectional alteration of D1-MSN activity promotes opposite behavioral outcomes to chronic social stress. Therefore, targeting D1-MSN activity may provide novel treatment strategies for depression or other affective disorders.

Working together: basal ganglia pathways in action selection.

Jin, Tecuapetla, and Costa combined in vivo electrophysiology with optogenetic-identification to examine firing in multiple basal ganglia nuclei during rapid motor sequences. Their results support a model of basal ganglia function in which co-activation of the direct and indirect pathways facilitate appropriate, while inhibiting competing, motor programs.

Is there a role for nitric oxide in methamphetamine-induced dopamine terminal degeneration?

Methamphetamine (METH) abuse results in long-term damage to the dopaminergic system, manifesting as decreases in dopamine (DA) tissue content, DA transporter binding, as well as tyrosine hydroxylase and vesicular monoamine transporter immunostaining. However, the exact cascade of events that ultimately result in this damage has not been clearly elucidated. One factor that has been heavily implicated in METH-induced DA terminal degeneration is the production of nitric oxide (NO). Unfortunately, many of the studies attempting to clarify the role of NO in METH-induced neurotoxicity have been confounded by issues such as the disruption of METH-induced hyperthermia, preventing the formation of strong conclusions. As a result, there is a body of work suggesting that NO is sufficient for METH-induced neurotoxicity, while other studies suggest that NO does not play a role in METH-induced degeneration of DA nerve terminals. This review summarizes the existing studies investigating the role of NO in METH-induced neurotoxicity, and argues that while NO may be necessary for METH-induced neurotoxicity, it is not sufficient. Finally, important areas of future investigation are highlighted and discussed.

A role for D1 dopamine receptors in striatal methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity.

Methamphetamine (METH) exposure results in long-term damage to the dopamine system in both human METH abusers and animal models. One factor that has been heavily implicated in this METH-induced damage to the dopaminergic system is the activation of D1 dopamine (DA) receptors. However, a significant caveat to the studies investigating the role of the receptor in such toxicity is that genetic and pharmacological manipulations of the D1 DA receptor also mitigate METH-induced hyperthermia. Importantly, METH-induced hyperthermia is tightly associated with the neurotoxicity, such that simply cooling animals during METH exposure protects against the neurotoxicity. Therefore, it is difficult to determine whether D1 DA receptors per se play an important role in METH-induced neurotoxicity or whether the protection observed simply resulted from a mitigation of METH-induced hyperthermia. To answer this important question, the current study infused a D1 DA receptor antagonist into striatum during METH exposure while controlling for METH-induced hyperthermia. Here we found that even when METH-induced hyperthermia is maintained, the coadministration of a D1 DA receptor antagonist protects against METH-induced neurotoxicity, strongly suggesting that D1 DA receptors play an important role in METH-induced neurotoxicity apart from the mitigation of METH-induced hyperthermia.

Successive bilateral frontal controlled cortical impact injuries show behavioral savings.

Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) affect millions of people each year. Research investigating repeated or serial damage in the form of lesions indicates that behavioral deficits are reduced in animals given sequential lesions separated by a sufficient period of recovery. In the lesion literature, this phenomenon is known as the serial lesion effect (SLE). Although the SLE phenomenon is established in the lesion literature, it has not been thoroughly investigated under current models of brain injury. In the current study, a controlled cortical impact of the bilateral frontal cortex was performed in either a single procedure or a serial procedure separated by two weeks. Rats were tested on the Morris water maze, bilateral tactile adhesive removal task, rotarod and Barnes maze task to determine behavioral deficits. Histology was performed to determine lesion size and astrocyte and microglial response. A serial lesion effect was demonstrated across a majority of the behavioral tasks. However, histological analyses did not suggest a clear mechanistic link to the behavioral phenomena. This is the first study to demonstrate the SLE in a model of TBI, suggesting that behavioral deficits may actually be reduced in repeated head injuries, given an adequate time window between injuries.