The complete mitochondrial genome of Talpa martinorum (Mammalia: Talpidae), a mole species endemic to Thrace: genome content and phylogenetic considerations.

The complete mitogenome sequence of Talpa martinorum, a recently described Balkan endemic mole, was assembled from next generation sequence data. The mitogenome is similar to that of the three other Talpa species sequenced to date, being 16,835 bp in length, and containing 13 protein-coding genes, two ribosomal RNA genes, 22 transfer RNA genes, an origin of L-strand replication, and a control region or D-loop. Compared to other Talpa mitogenomes sequenced to date, that of T. martinorum differs in the length of D-loop and stop codon usage. TAG and T-- are the stop codons for the ND1 and ATP8 genes, respectively, in T. martinorum, whilst TAA acts as a stop codon for both ND1 and ATP8 in the other three Talpa species sequenced. Phylogeny reconstructions based on Maximum Likelihood and Bayesian inference analyses yielded phylogenies with similar topologies, demonstrating that T. martinorum nests within the western lineage of the genus, being closely related to T. aquitania and T. occidentalis.

R2d2 Drives Selfish Sweeps in the House Mouse.

A selective sweep is the result of strong positive selection driving newly occurring or standing genetic variants to fixation, and can dramatically alter the pattern and distribution of allelic diversity in a population. Population-level sequencing data have enabled discoveries of selective sweeps associated with genes involved in recent adaptations in many species. In contrast, much debate but little evidence addresses whether "selfish" genes are capable of fixation-thereby leaving signatures identical to classical selective sweeps-despite being neutral or deleterious to organismal fitness. We previously described R2d2, a large copy-number variant that causes nonrandom segregation of mouse Chromosome 2 in females due to meiotic drive. Here we show population-genetic data consistent with a selfish sweep driven by alleles of R2d2 with high copy number (R2d2(HC)) in natural populations. We replicate this finding in multiple closed breeding populations from six outbred backgrounds segregating for R2d2 alleles. We find that R2d2(HC) rapidly increases in frequency, and in most cases becomes fixed in significantly fewer generations than can be explained by genetic drift. R2d2(HC) is also associated with significantly reduced litter sizes in heterozygous mothers, making it a true selfish allele. Our data provide direct evidence of populations actively undergoing selfish sweeps, and demonstrate that meiotic drive can rapidly alter the genomic landscape in favor of mutations with neutral or even negative effects on overall Darwinian fitness. Further study will reveal the incidence of selfish sweeps, and will elucidate the relative contributions of selfish genes, adaptation and genetic drift to evolution.

Long-Term Reciprocal Gene Flow in Wild and Domestic Geese Reveals Complex Domestication History.

Hybridization has frequently been observed between wild and domestic species and can substantially impact genetic diversity of both counterparts. Geese show some of the highest levels of interspecific hybridization across all bird orders, and two of the goose species in the genus Anser have been domesticated providing an excellent opportunity for a joint study of domestication and hybridization. Until now, knowledge of the details of the goose domestication process has come from archaeological findings and historical writings supplemented with a few studies based on mitochondrial DNA. Here, we used genome-wide markers to make the first genome-based inference of the timing of European goose domestication. We also analyzed the impact of hybridization on the genome-wide genetic variation in current populations of the European domestic goose and its wild progenitor: the graylag goose (Anser anser). Our dataset consisted of 58 wild graylags sampled around Eurasia and 75 domestic geese representing 14 breeds genotyped for 33,527 single nucleotide polymorphisms. Demographic reconstruction and clustering analysis suggested that divergence between wild and domestic geese around 5,300 generations ago was followed by long-term genetic exchange, and that graylag populations have 3.2-58.0% admixture proportions with domestic geese, with distinct geographic patterns. Surprisingly, many modern European breeds share considerable (> 10%) ancestry with the Chinese domestic geese that is derived from the swan goose Anser cygnoid We show that the domestication process can progress despite continued and pervasive gene flow from the wild form.

The diverse origins of New Zealand house mice.

Molecular markers and morphological characters can help infer the colonization history of organisms. A combination of mitochondrial (mt) D-loop DNA sequences, nuclear DNA data, external measurements and skull characteristics shows that house mice (Mus musculus) in New Zealand and its outlying islands are descended from very diverse sources. The predominant genome is Mus musculus domesticus (from western Europe), but Mus musculus musculus (from central Europe) and Mus musculus castaneus (from southern Asia) are also represented genetically. These subspecies have hybridized to produce combinations of musculus and domesticus nuclear DNA coupled with domesticus mtDNA, and castaneus or musculus mtDNA with domesticus nuclear DNA. The majority of the mice with domesticus mtDNA that we sampled had D-loop sequences identical to two haplotypes common in Britain. This is consistent with long-term British-New Zealand cultural linkages. The origins of the castaneus mtDNA sequences widespread in New Zealand are less easy to identify.

Of mice and (Viking?) men: phylogeography of British and Irish house mice.

The west European subspecies of house mouse (Mus musculus domesticus) has gained much of its current widespread distribution through commensalism with humans. This means that the phylogeography of M. m. domesticus should reflect patterns of human movements. We studied restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) and DNA sequence variations in mouse mitochondrial (mt) DNA throughout the British Isles (328 mice from 105 localities, including previously published data). There is a major mtDNA lineage revealed by both RFLP and sequence analyses, which is restricted to the northern and western peripheries of the British Isles, and also occurs in Norway. This distribution of the 'Orkney' lineage fits well with the sphere of influence of the Norwegian Vikings and was probably generated through inadvertent transport by them. To form viable populations, house mice would have required large human settlements such as the Norwegian Vikings founded. The other parts of the British Isles (essentially most of mainland Britain) are characterized by house mice with different mtDNA sequences, some of which are also found in Germany, and which probably reflect both Iron Age movements of people and mice and earlier development of large human settlements. MtDNA studies on house mice have the potential to reveal novel aspects of human history.

Systematics of Scorpaeniformes species in the Mediterranean Sea inferred from mitochondrial 16S rDNA sequence and morphological data.

Genetic and morphological divergence and phylogenetic relationships of Scorpaeniformes fish including two genera and six species, Helicolenus dactylopterus, Scorpaena maderensis, Scorpaena porcus, Scorpaena elongata, Scorpaena scrofa, Scorpaena notata, living in the Mediterranean Sea, were investigated with morphological and mitochondrial 16S rDNA sequence data. The mean nucleotide diversity was found to be 0.0792. Average sequence divergence between species of Sebastidae and Scorpaenidae was 8.4%, and 6.4%. between species of the genus Scorpaena. For congeneric comparisions, the lowest genetic divergence (0.7%) was observed between S. porcus and S. notata, and the highest divergence (10.8%) was detected between S. maderensis and S. notata. High levels of nucleotide divergence were detected between species of two families, and the maximum value was found to be 14.5% between H. dactylopterus and S. elongata. The two phylogenetic methods (NJ and MP) identified two major lineages. In the NJ tree S. elongata was the sister group to S. scrofa. S. maderensis was more divergent from these groups. Another lineage contained S. porcus and S. notata. The topology of the MP tree is similar to that of the NJ tree. The pattern and degree of morphological differentiation was not congruent with the genetic differentiation. The Euclidiean distances of morphological data revealed very high morphological divergence between the two families. The highest morphological divergence was observed between H. dactylopterus and S. porcus, and the lowest was detected between S. elongata and S. notata. The present genetic and morphological data support the present monophyletic status of the Scorpaena genus.

How did pygmy shrews colonize Ireland? Clues from a phylogenetic analysis of mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences.

There is a long-standing debate as to how Ireland attained its present fauna; we help to inform this debate with a molecular study of one species. A 1110 base pair fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene was sequenced in 74 specimens of the pygmy shrew, Sorex minutus, collected from throughout its western Palaearctic range. Phylogenetic analysis of these sequences revealed several well-supported lineages. Most of the 65 haplotypes belonged to a northern lineage, which ranged from Britain in the west to Lake Baikal in the east. The other lineages were largely limited to Iberia, Italy and the Balkans. One exception, however, was a lineage found in both Ireland and Andorra. This affinity, and the large difference between the mitochondrial sequences of Irish and British individuals, suggest that pygmy shrews did not colonize Ireland via a land connection from Britain, as has been previously supposed, but instead were introduced by boat from southwest continental Europe. All the Irish pygmy shrews analysed were identical or very similar in cytochrome b sequence, suggesting an extreme founding event.

Staggered chromosomal hybrid zones in the house mouse: relevance to reticulate evolution and speciation.

In the house mouse there are numerous chromosomal races distinguished by different combinations of metacentric chromosomes. These may come into contact with each other and with the ancestral all-acrocentric race, and form hybrid zones. The chromosomal clines that make up these hybrid zones may be coincident or separated from each other (staggered). Such staggered hybrid zones are interesting because they may include populations of individuals homozygous for a mix of features of the hybridising races. We review the characteristics of four staggered hybrid zones in the house mouse and discuss whether they are examples of primary or secondary contact and whether they represent reticulate evolution or not. However, the most important aspect of staggered hybrid zones is that the homozygous populations within the zones have the potential to expand their distributions and become new races (a process termed 'zonal raciation'). In this way they can add to the total 'stock' of chromosomal races in the species concerned. Speciation is an infrequent phenomenon that may involve an unusual set of circumstances. Each one of the products of zonal raciation has the potential to become a new species and by having more races increases the chance of a speciation event.

Multigenic and morphometric differentiation of ground squirrels (Spermophilus, Scuiridae, Rodentia) in Turkey, with a description of a new species.

This study reports on the molecular phylogenetics of ground squirrels, genus Spermophilus, in Turkey using cytochrome b (1140bp), part of the D-loop and flanking tRNAs (572bp), X chromosome (867-1051bp) and Y chromosome (983-989bp) DNA sequences. Individuals also were characterized by karyotype and with geometric morphometric analyses of mandibles and skulls. Two hundred fourteen individuals from 91 localities were studied. All the data support the recognition of a new species in SW Anatolia: the Taurus ground squirrel Spermophilus taurensis sp. nov. The new species has a small distribution in the Taurus Mountains in an area that is a hotspot for biodiversity. Molecular clock analysis suggests that the new species diverged from the European ground squirrel, Spermophilus citellus, about 2.5 million years ago and that the ancestor of these two species diverged from the widespread Anatolian ground squirrel, Spermophilus xanthoprymnus, about 5 million years ago. Morphometric differentiation in skull and mandible shape among the three species is incomplete, but statistically significant. S. xanthoprymnus is subdivided into five cytochrome b phylogroups and we use these data to infer the location of glacial refugia where the species lived during the last glacial maximum. This study illustrates the potential of combined molecular and morphometric studies to uncover new Anatolian species and to reconstruct their phylogeographic history. The new species is important for squirrel taxonomy and for understanding Eurasian mammal evolution.

Characterization and comparison of major urinary proteins from the house mouse, Mus musculus domesticus, and the aboriginal mouse, Mus macedonicus.

Urine from the house mouse, Mus musculus domesticus, contains a high concentration of major urinary proteins (MUPs), which convey olfactory information between conspecifics. In wild populations, each individual expresses a different pattern of around 8 to 14 electrophoretically separable MUP isoforms. To examine whether other Mus species express MUPs and exhibit a similar level of individual heterogeneity, we characterized urinary proteins in urine samples from an aboriginal species, Mus macedonicus, captured from different sites in Turkey. Anion exchange chromatography and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry demonstrated that M. macedonicus urine contained a single major peak of mass 18,742 Da, and in contrast to M. m. domesticus, all individuals were the same. The M. macedonicus masses were not predicted from any known MUP gene sequence. Endoproteinase Lys-C (Lys-C) digestion of the purified M. macedonicus urinary protein followed by matrix assisted laser desorption time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry demonstrated that it shared considerable, but not complete, sequence homogeneity with M. m. domesticus MUPs. Three M. macedonicus Lys-C peptides differed in mass from their M. m. domesticus counterparts. These three peptides were further characterized by tandem mass spectrometry. The complete sequences of two were determined, and in conjunction with methyl esterification, the amino acid composition of the third was inferred, and the sequence narrowed down to three permutations. The complete M. macedonicus sequence contained a maximum of seven amino acid substitutions, discernible by tandem mass spectrometry, relative to a reference M. m. domesticus sequence. Six of these were on the surface of the molecule. Molecular modeling of the M. macedonicus sequence demonstrated that the amino acid substitutions had little effect on the tertiary structure. The differences in the level of heterogeneity between the two species are discussed in relation to their environment and behavior. In addition, the differences in protein structure allow speculation into molecular mechanisms of MUP function.

Analysis of sex-linked sequences supports a new mammal species in Europe.

European mammals have been the focus of particularly detailed taxonomic studies by traditional morphological methods. However, DNA analyses have the potential to reveal additional, cryptic species. We describe two highly divergent evolutionary lineages within a small Eurasian mammal, the field vole (Microtus agrestis). We show that the two lineages can be detected not only with maternally (mitochondrial DNA), but also with paternally (Y chromosome) and biparentally (X chromosome) inherited DNA sequences. Reciprocal monophyly of all genealogies and their congruent geographical distributions is consistent with reproductive isolation. Our results suggest that the field vole should be reclassified as two separate species.

Molecular phylogeny of the speciose vole genus Microtus (Arvicolinae, Rodentia) inferred from mitochondrial DNA sequences.

Voles of the genus Microtus represent one of the most speciose mammalian genera in the Holarctic. We established a molecular phylogeny for Microtus to resolve contentious issues of systematic relationships and evolutionary history in this genus. A total of 81 specimens representing ten Microtus species endemic to Europe as well as eight Eurasian, six Asian and one Holarctic species were sequenced for the entire cytochrome b gene (1140 bp). A further 25 sequences were retrieved from GenBank, providing data on an additional 23, mainly Nearctic, Microtus species. Phylogenetic analysis of these 48 species generated four well-supported monophyletic lineages. The genus Chionomys, snow voles, formed a distinct and well-supported lineage separate from the genus Microtus. The subgenus Microtus formed the strongest supported lineage with two sublineages displaying a close relationship between the arvalis species group (common voles) and the socialis species group (social voles). Monophyly of the Palearctic pitymyid voles, subgenus Terricola, was supported, and this subgenus was also subdivided into two monophyletic species groups. Together, these groupings clarify long-standing taxonomic uncertainties in Microtus. In addition, the "Asian" and the Nearctic lineages reported previously were identified although the latter group was not supported. However, relationships among the main Microtus branches were not resolved, suggesting a rapid and potentially simultaneous radiation of a widespread ancestor early in the history of the genus. This and subsequent radiations discernible in the cytochrome b phylogeny, show the considerable potential of Microtus for analysis of historical and ecological determinants of speciation in small mammals. It is evident that speciation is an ongoing process in the genus and that the molecular data provides a vital insight into current species limits as well as cladogenic events of the past.