A prolonged pharmacological blockade of type-5 metabotropic glutamate receptors protects cultured spinal cord motor neurons against excitotoxic death.

The causes of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are mostly undefined; however, excitotoxic injury and astrogliosis may contribute to motor neuron (MN) degeneration. Group I metabotropic glutamate (mGlu) receptors are over-expressed in reactive astrocytes in ALS, but the functional significance of this over-expression is presently unknown. We examined the role of group I mGlu receptors on excitotoxic death of spinal cord MNs grown in cultures enriched of astrocytes bearing a reactive phenotype. A prolonged exposure to the selective non-competitive mGlu5 receptor antagonist MPEP reduced AMPA-mediated toxicity and cobalt uptake in MNs. Expression levels of the GluR1 (but not GluR2) AMPA receptor subunit and levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were reduced in mixed spinal cord cultures pretreated with MPEP. In addition, neuroprotection by MPEP was less than additive with that produced by a neutralizing anti-BDNF antibody and a treatment with exogenous BDNF masked the protective effect of MPEP, suggesting that mGlu5 receptors and BDNF converge in facilitating excitotoxic MN death. The protective effect of MPEP was absent in cultures with a reduced number of astrocytes. We suggest that blocking astrocytic mGlu5 receptors is a potential therapeutic strategy in ALS.

Modulation of PARP-1 and PARP-2 expression by L-carnosine and trehalose after LPS and INFγ-induced oxidative stress.

Poly(ADP-ribose) polymerases (PARPs) play a crucial role in DNA damage surveillance through their nick sensor functions. Since PARPs' over activation leads to an excessive consumption of NAD(+) and ATP depletion, these enzymes also are involved in the early events of programmed cell death as well as in necrosis. In order to verify the protective action of L: -carnosine and trehalose against NO induced cell death, in the present study we examined their effects on the expression of PARP-1, PARP-2 and iNOS in primary rat astrocyte and oligodendrocyte cells, treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon gamma (INFγ), through semi-quantitative PCR and western analysis. To further characterize the molecular mechanisms underlying L-carnosine and trehalose action, we measured cell viability, nitrite production and LDH release. The data obtained clearly demonstrate that in the stress model employed L-carnosine and trehalose down regulate PARP-1 and PARP-2 expression in both cell phenotypes, thus suggesting their possible application in clinical trials.

Cellular stress response: a novel target for chemoprevention and nutritional neuroprotection in aging, neurodegenerative disorders and longevity.

The predominant molecular symptom of aging is the accumulation of altered gene products. Moreover, several conditions including protein, lipid or glucose oxidation disrupt redox homeostasis and lead to accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in the aging brain. Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases or Friedreich ataxia are neurological diseases sharing, as a common denominator, production of abnormal proteins, mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress, which contribute to the pathogenesis of these so called "protein conformational diseases". The central nervous system has evolved the conserved mechanism of unfolded protein response to cope with the accumulation of misfolded proteins. As one of the main intracellular redox systems involved in neuroprotection, the vitagene system is emerging as a neurohormetic potential target for novel cytoprotective interventions. Vitagenes encode for cytoprotective heat shock proteins (Hsp) Hsp70 and heme oxygenase-1, as well as thioredoxin reductase and sirtuins. Nutritional studies show that ageing in animals can be significantly influenced by dietary restriction. Thus, the impact of dietary factors on health and longevity is an increasingly appreciated area of research. Reducing energy intake by controlled caloric restriction or intermittent fasting increases lifespan and protects various tissues against disease. Genetics has revealed that ageing may be controlled by changes in intracellular NAD/NADH ratio regulating sirtuin, a group of proteins linked to aging, metabolism and stress tolerance in several organisms. Recent findings suggest that several phytochemicals exhibit biphasic dose responses on cells with low doses activating signaling pathways that result in increased expression of vitagenes encoding survival proteins, as in the case of the Keap1/Nrf2/ARE pathway activated by curcumin and NAD/NADH-sirtuin-1 activated by resveratrol. Consistently, the neuroprotective roles of dietary antioxidants including curcumin, acetyl-L-carnitine and carnosine have been demonstrated through the activation of these redox-sensitive intracellular pathways. Although the notion that stress proteins are neuroprotective is broadly accepted, still much work needs to be done in order to associate neuroprotection with specific pattern of stress responses. In this review the importance of vitagenes in the cellular stress response and the potential use of dietary antioxidants in the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative disorders is discussed.

Mitochondrial dysfunction, free radical generation and cellular stress response in neurodegenerative disorders.

Protein conformational diseases, such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's, affect a large portion of aging population. The pathogenic dysfunctional aggregation of proteins in non-native conformations is associated with metabolic derangements and excessive production of reactive oxygen species. Reduction of cellular expression and activity of antioxidant proteins result in increased oxidative stress. Free-radicals derived from mitochondrial dysfunction and from the cyclooxygenase enzyme activity play a role in oxidative damage of brain. Cyclooxygenase also mediates in neuro-inflammation by the production of pro-inflammatory prostaglandins which contribute to brain injury. The pathogenic role of cyclooxygenase has been demonstrated in Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases. The brain responses to detect and control diverse forms of stress are accomplished by a complex network of "longevity assurance processes" integrated to the expression of genes termed vitagenes. Heat shock proteins are a highly conserved system responsible for the preservation and repair of correct protein conformation. Heme oxygenase-1, a inducible and redox-regulated enzyme, is currently considered as having an important role in cellular antioxidant defense. A neuroprotective effect, due to its heme degrading activity, and tissue-specific pro-oxidant effects, due to its products CO and free iron, are under debate. There is a current interest in dietary compounds that can inhibit, retard or reverse the multi-stage pathophysiology of Alzheimer disease, with a chronic inflammatory response, brain injury and beta-amyloid associated pathology. Curcumin and ferulic acid, two powerful antioxidants, the first from the curry spice turmeric and the second a major constituent of fruit and vegetables, have emerged as strong inducers of the heat shock response. Food supplementation with curcumin and ferulic acid is considered a nutritional approach to reduce oxidative damage and amyloid pathology in Alzheimer disease.

A reduced number of metabotropic glutamate subtype 5 receptors are associated with constitutive homer proteins in a mouse model of fragile X syndrome.

Fragile X (FRAX) syndrome is a common inherited form of mental retardation resulting from the lack of fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP) expression. The consequences of FMRP absence in the mechanism underlying mental retardation are unknown. Here, we tested the hypothesis that glutamate receptor (GluR) expression might be altered in FRAX syndrome. Initial in situ hybridization and Western blotting experiments did not reveal differences in mRNA levels and protein expression of AMPA and NMDA subunits and metabotropic glutamate subtype 5 (mGlu5) receptors between control and Fmr1 knock-out (KO) mice during postnatal development. However, a detergent treatment (1% Triton X-100) revealed a selective reduction of mGlu5 receptor expression in the detergent-insoluble fraction of synaptic plasma membranes (SPMs) from KO mice, with no difference in the expression of NR2A, GluR1, GluR2/3, GluR4, and Homer proteins. mGlu5 receptor expression was also lower in Homer immunoprecipitates from Fmr1 KO SPMs. Homer, but not NR2A, mGlu5, and GluR1, was found to be less tyrosine phosphorylated in Fmr1 KO than control mice. Our data indicate that, in FRAX syndrome, a reduced number of mGlu5 receptors are tightly linked to the constituents of postsynaptic density and, in particular, to the constitutive forms of Homer proteins, with possible consequent alterations in synaptic plasticity.

Acetylcarnitine and cellular stress response: roles in nutritional redox homeostasis and regulation of longevity genes.

Aging is associated with a reduced ability to cope with physiological challenges. Although the mechanisms underlying age-related alterations in stress tolerance are not well defined, many studies support the validity of the oxidative stress hypothesis, which suggests that lowered functional capacity in aged organisms is the result of an increased generation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species. Increased production of oxidants in vivo can cause damage to intracellular macromolecules, which can translate into oxidative injury, impaired function and cell death in vulnerable tissues such as the brain. To survive different types of injuries, brain cells have evolved networks of responses, which detect and control diverse forms of stress. This is accomplished by a complex network of the so-called longevity assurance processes, which are composed of several genes termed vitagenes. Among these, heat shock proteins form a highly conserved system responsible for the preservation and repair of the correct protein conformation. The heat shock response contributes to establishing a cytoprotective state in a wide variety of human diseases, including inflammation, cancer, aging and neurodegenerative disorders. Given the broad cytoprotective properties of the heat shock response, there is now a strong interest in discovering and developing pharmacological agents capable of inducing the heat shock response. Acetylcarnitine is proposed as a therapeutic agent for several neurodegenerative disorders, and there is now evidence that it may play a critical role as modulator of cellular stress response in health and disease states. In the present review, we first discuss the role of nutrition in carnitine metabolism, followed by a discussion of carnitine and acetyl-l-carnitine in mitochondrial dysfunction, in aging, and in age-related disorders. We then review the evidence for the role of acetylcarnitine in modulating redox-dependent mechanisms leading to up-regulation of vitagenes in brain, and we also discuss new approaches for investigating the mechanisms of lifetime survival and longevity.

Erratic expression of DNA polymerases by beta-amyloid causes neuronal death.

An ectopic reentrance into the cell cycle with ensuing DNA replication is required for neuronal apoptosis induced by beta-amyloid. Here, we investigate the repertoire of DNA polymerases expressed in beta-amyloid-treated neurons, and their specific role in DNA synthesis and apoptosis. We show that exposure of cultured cortical neurons to beta-amyloid induces the expression of DNA polymerase-beta, proliferating cell nuclear antigen, and the p49 and p58 subunits of DNA primase. Induction requires the activity of cyclin-dependent kinases. The knockdown of the p49 primase subunit prevents beta-amyloid-induced neuronal DNA synthesis and apoptosis. Similar effects are observed by knocking down DNA polymerase-beta or by using dideoxycytidine, a preferential inhibitor of this enzyme. Thus, the reparative enzyme DNA polymerase-beta unexpectedly mediates a large component of de novo DNA synthesis and apoptotic death in neurons exposed to beta-amyloid. These data indicate that DNA polymerases become death signals when erratically expressed by differentiated neurons.

Heme oxygenase and cyclooxygenase in the central nervous system: a functional interplay.

Heme oxygenase (HO) and cyclooxygenase (COX) are two hemeproteins involved in the regulation of several functions in the nervous system. Heme oxygenase is the enzyme responsible for the degradation of heme into ferrous iron, carbon monoxide (CO), and biliverdin, the latter being further reduced in bilirubin (BR) by biliverdin reductase. Heme oxygenase-derived CO is a gaseous neuromodulator and plays an important role in the synaptic plasticity, learning and memory processes, as well as in the regulation of hypothalamic neuropeptide release, whereas BR is an endogenous molecules with antioxidant and anti-nitrosative activities. Cyclooxygenase is considered a pro-inflammatory enzyme as free radicals and prostaglandins (PGs) are produced during its catalytic cycle. Although PGs are also involved in a variety of physiologic conditions including angiogenesis, hemostasis, or regulation of kidney function, upregulation of COX and increase in PGs levels are a common feature of neuroinflammation. In the brain, a functional interplay exists between HO and COX. Heme oxygenase regulates COX activity by reducing the intracellular heme content or by generating CO, which stimulates PGE(2) release. Increased levels of PGs, free radicals, and the associated oxidative stress serve in the brain as a trigger for the induction of HO isoforms which increases cellular antioxidant defenses to counteract oxidative damage. The importance of the interaction between HO and COX in the regulation of physiologic brain functions, and its relevance to neuroprotective or neurodegenerative mechanisms are discussed.

Acetylcarnitine induces heme oxygenase in rat astrocytes and protects against oxidative stress: involvement of the transcription factor Nrf2.

Efficient functioning of maintenance and repair processes seem to be crucial for both survival and physical quality of life. This is accomplished by a complex network of the so-called longevity assurance processes, under control of several genes termed vitagenes. These include members of the heat shock protein system, and there is now evidence that the heat shock response contributes to establishing a cytoprotective state in a wide variety of human conditions, including inflammation, neurodegenerative disorders, and aging. Among the various heat shock proteins, heme oxygenase-1 has received considerable attention; it has been recently demonstrated that heme oxygenase-1 induction, by generating the vasoactive molecule carbon monoxide and the potent antioxidant bilirubin, could represent a protective system potentially active against brain oxidative injury. Acetyl-L-carnitine is proposed as a therapeutic agent for several neurodegenerative disorders. Accordingly, we report here that treatment of astrocytes with acetyl-L-carnitine induces heme oxygenase-1 in a dose- and time-dependent manner and that this effect was associated with up-regulation of heat shock protein 60 as well as high expression of the redox-sensitive transcription factor Nrf2 in the nuclear fraction of treated cells. In addition, we show that addition of acetyl-L-carnitine to astrocytes, prior to proinflammatory lipopolysaccharide- and interferon-gamma-induced nitrosative stress, prevents changes in mitochondrial respiratory chain complex activity, protein nitrosation and antioxidant status induced by inflammatory cytokine insult. Given the broad cytoprotective properties of the heat shock response, molecules inducing this defense mechanism appear to be possible candidates for novel cytoprotective strategies. Particularly, manipulation of endogenous cellular defense mechanisms via acetyl-L-carnitine may represent an innovative approach to therapeutic intervention in diseases causing tissue damage, such as neurodegeneration. We hypothesize that maintenance or recovery of the activity of vitagenes may delay the aging process and decrease the risk of age-related diseases.

Differential expression of estrogen receptors alpha and beta in the spinal cord during postnatal development: localization in glial cells.

Estrogens are recognized as neuroprotective and neurotrophic agents in the central nervous system. They are involved in neuronal differentiation and survival and promote neural development. Estrogen receptors alpha (ER-alpha) and beta (ER-beta) are predominantly expressed in neurons, whereas their presence in glial cells in vivo is more controversial. Changes in their expression during development have been described in different brain areas, but little is known about their presence in the spinal cord. We have carried out an immunohistochemical study in an attempt to analyze the expression of both ERs in astrocytes and oligodendrocytes of the rat spinal cord and their modifications during postnatal development. RT-PCR analysis of whole spinal cord extracts from 4-, 12-, and 25-day-old and adult rats indicated changes in the expression of both receptors during maturation. Immunohistochemistry of slices of the lumbar tract revealed that in an area of the ventral spinal cord that does not contain neuronal cell bodies, but mainly fibers and glial cells, both ER-alpha and ER-beta can be detected. Immunostaining is clearly nuclear, and, in the case of ER-alpha, both markedly positive and weakly labeled cells can be identified. ER-alpha is expressed during early development to progressively decline in the adult stage. In contrast, the ER-beta signal is low and peaks at postnatal day 25, whereas it is almost undetectable at other ages. Colocalization studies revealed that, at postnatal day 25, ER-alpha and ER-beta are expressed in astrocytes (identified by the specific marker glial fibrillar acidic protein) and oligodendrocytes (labeled by antimyelin 2',3'-cyclic nucleotide 3'-phosphodiesterase). The present results confirm the expression of ER-alpha and ER-beta in glial cells in vivo and suggest that, also in the spinal cord, glial cells may contribute to the effects of estrogen during development.

Upregulation of neuronal nitric oxide synthase in in vitro stellate astrocytes and in vivo reactive astrocytes after electrically induced status epilepticus.

Neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) is a constitutively expressed and calcium-dependent enzyme. Despite predominantly expressed in neurons, nNOS has been also found in astrocytes, although at lower expression levels. We have studied the regulation of nNOS expression in cultured rat astrocytes from cortex and spinal cord by Western blotting and immunocytochemistry. nNOS was not detectable in cultured astrocytes grown in serum-containing medium (SCM), but was highly expressed after serum deprivation. Accordingly, calcium-dependent NOS activity and both intracellular nitrite levels and nitrotyrosine immunoreactivity after glutamate stimulation were higher in serum-deprived astrocytes than in cells grown in SCM. Serum deprivation induced a modification of astrocytes morphology, from flat to stellate. nNOS up-regulation was also observed in reactive astrocytes of rat hippocampi after electrically induced status epilepticus, as demonstrated by double-labeling experiments. Thus, nNOS upregulation occurs in both in vitro stellate and in vivo reactive astrocytes, suggesting a possible involvement of glial nNOS in neurological diseases characterized by reactive gliosis.

Nitric oxide synthase is present in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with active multiple sclerosis and is associated with increases in cerebrospinal fluid protein nitrotyrosine and S-nitrosothiols and with changes in glutathione levels.

Nitric oxide (NO) is hypothesized to play a role in the immunopathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS). Increased levels of NO metabolites have been found in patients with MS. Peroxynitrite, generated by the reaction of NO with superoxide at sites of inflammation, is a strong oxidant capable of damaging tissues and cells. Inducible NO synthase (iNOS) is up-regulated in the CNS of animals with experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) and in patients with MS. In this study, Western blots of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from patients with MS demonstrated the presence of iNOS, which was absent in CSF from control subjects. There was also NOS activity present in both MS and control CSF. Total NOS activity was increased (by 24%) in the CSF from MS patients compared with matched controls. The addition of 0.1 mM ITU (a specific iNOS inhibitor) to the samples did not change the activity of the control samples but decreased the NOS activity in the MS samples to almost control levels. The addition of 1 mM L-NMMA (a nonisoform specific NOS inhibitor), completely inhibited NOS activity in CSF from control and MS subjects. Nitrotyrosine immunostaining of CSF proteins was detectable in controls but was greatly increased in MS samples. There were also significant increases in CSF nitrate + nitrite and oxidant-enhanced luminescence in MS samples compared with controls. Additionally, a significant decrease in reduced glutathione and significant increases in oxidized glutathione and S-nitrosothiols were found in MS samples compared with controls. Parallel changes in NO metabolites were observed in the plasma of MS patients, compared with controls, and accompanied a significant increase of reduced glutathione. These data strongly support a role for nitrosative stress in the pathogenesis of MS and indicate that therapeutic strategies focussed on decreasing production of NO by iNOS and/or scavenging peroxynitrite may be useful in alleviating the neurological impairments that occur during MS relapse.